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N. 


.i         ^f^  THE 

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THE 


FARMERS'  AND  MECHANICS' 


MAlSrUAL. 


WITH    MANY   VALUABLE    TABLES     FOR    MACHINISTS,    MANUFACTURERS,    MER- 
CHANTS,   BUILDERS,    ENGINEERS,    MASONS,    PAINTERS,    PLUMBERS, 
GARDENERS,    ACCOUNTANTS,   ETC., 

BY  W.  S.  COURTNEY. 

)•- 

BBVISKD  AND  ENLARQKD 

BY    GEOKGE    E.    WARING,  Jr., 

AUTHOR     OF     "  ELEMENTS     OF     AQRlCCLTtrKK,"     "  DRAINING   FOR  PROFIT  AND  FOB  HEALTH,'" 

"EARTH   closets:     HOW   TO   MAKE   AND   HOW   TO   USE  THEM,"   AND   FOBMEBLY 

AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEER  OF  THE  CENTBAL  PABE,   NEW  TOBK. 


TWO  HUNDRED  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


SOLD  ONLY  BY   SUBSCRIPTION. 

^     OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 

NEW  YORK : 

E.  B.  TREAT  &  CO.,  654  BEOADWAY; 

C.  W.  LTLLEY,  Chicago,  III.  ;  A.  H.  HUBBARD,  Phila.,  Pa.  ; 

H.  H.  BANCROFT,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

1869. 


ERBATA. 


PAGE 

79.  10th  line  from  top  of  page. 

80.  Ist 
87.  6th 
87.  7th 

87.  7th 

88.  3d 
88.  23d 


H'^.'^r " ' 


.should  read  298 


303 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1868,  by 
E.  B.  TREAT  «fe  Co., 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southern 
♦  District  of  New  York. 


Banford,  Ciuhing  &  Co.,  Printers,  644  &  646  Brokdway,  New  Tork.;. 


PREFACE 


There  are  few  persons,  no  matter  what  their  calling  or 
their  education,  who  do  not  occasionally  find  themselves  at 
a  loss  for  information  of  the  commonest  kind,  on  any  of  the 
subjects  pertaining  to  the  practical  arts  of  daily  life — knowl- 
edge which  was,  perhaps,  familiar  to  them  in  their  school- 
boy days,  but  which  has  been  forgotten  or  become  obscured 
through  the  lapse  of  years.  For  example,  how  few  persons 
can  tell,  without  consulting  books,  the  cubic  inches  contained 
in  a  bushel,  the  square  yards  in  an  acre,  or  how  to  measure 
the  contents  of  a  corn  crib,  or  gauge  a  cistern.  Nor  is  the 
inability  to  do  so  any  reflection  upon  either  their  native 
capacity  or  their  education.  It  is  simply  impossible  to  carry 
all  these  things  in  the  memory  so  as  to  apply  them  when 
occasion  requires.  Hence  the  necessity  for  "  Hand-Books," 
'^  Mechanics'  Assistants,"  "  Pocket  Companions,"  &c. 

Besides  the  labor  involved  in  the  almost  daily  necessity  of 
calculating  arithmetical,  mensural,  and  other  results,  and  the 
constant  liability  to  error  to  which  even  the  competent 
scholar  is  subject,  the  time  required  in  the  process,  in  this 
age,  when  time  has  emphatically  acquired  a  money  value,  is 
no  inconsiderable  desideratum.  Hence  the  necessity  for 
"  Keady  Reckoners,"  "  Pocket  Accountants,"  "  Calculators' 
Assistants,"  &c. 


195064 


VUl  PREFACE. 

In  presenting  this  volume,  a  chief  aim  of  the  author  was 
so  to  combine  the  Manual  with  the  Reckoner,  as  to  furnish 
the  inquirer,  in  brief,  w^ith  all  the  necessary  rules  and  data 
and  the  elementary  facts  and  axioms  relating  to  almost  every 
branch  of  industrial  science,  and  particularly  that  of  agri- 
culture, and,  at  the  same  time,  whenever  it  was  possible,  to 
compute  and  tabulate  the  results  for  him  in  the  same  con- 
nection. Hence  he  will  find  in  the  ensuing  pages  the  axio- 
matical or  elementary  propositions,  the  data^  the  standards, 
the  units,  &c.,  of  almost  every  useful  and  practical  art  with 
which  the  farmer  may  have  to  deal,  clearly  stated,  together 
with  their  simplest  rules,  illustrated  by  examples  and  solu- 
tions, and,  wherever  it  w^as  practicable,  the  arithmetical  re- 
sults calculated  and  tabularized. 

Those  who  consult  this  book  must  remember  that  it  is 
not  a  work  of  recipes^  prescriptions^  or  of  directions  and 
advice  as  to  the  best  mode  of  conducting  any  or  all  the 
various  operations  pertaining  to  agriculture,  &c.  But  they 
will  bear  in  mind  that  the  subjects  of  which  this  book  treats 
are,  for  the  most  part,  facts  and  Jlgures—Si&siiYed  analyses 
and  demonstrations — about  which  there  can  be  no  dispute. 
The  design  was  to  produce  a  work  of  substantial  and  endur- 
ing value,  and  of  universal  application  and  use — something 
in  the  sphere  of  agriculture  corresponding  to  Haswell  in 
Engineering,  or  Fairbairn  in  Mechanics.  How  far  the 
author's  labors  have  tended  to  that  end  remains  to  be  tested 
by  experience.     He  is  sanguine  of  their  ultimate  fruition. 

So  vast  is  the  domain  of  agriculture,  that  there  are  few 
of  the  mechanic  arts  of  which  the  farmer  does  not  require 
some  information,  and  which  he  is  often  compelled  to  seek 
through  many  books  and  journals.  He  is,  in  a  certain  sense, 
encyclopediac  in  his  science  and  use.     Hence  many  subjects 


PREFACE.  IX 

upon  which  he  may  require  elementary  knowledge  and  the 
assistance  of  computations  may  have  escaped  the  vigilance 
of  the  author. 

When  a  friend  first  suggested  to  the  author  the  design  of 
such  a  work,  the  latter  had  no  adequate  conception  of  the 
labor  involved  in  such  an  undertaking.  Although  many  of 
the  tables  were  supplied  or  compiled  from  other  authors,  yet 
the  labor  involved  in  those  he  himself  calculated  and  ar- 
ranged was  prodigious.  Besides,  the  composition  or  type- 
setting of  the  matter  was  of  the  most  tedious,  diiiicult,  and 
expensive  kind,  so  that  the  volume  of  matter  included  within 
the  covers  would  seem  to  bear  no  just  proportion  to  the  price 
the  publisher  is  obliged  to  charge  for  it.  Books  much 
larger,  and  of  many  more  pages  of  the  ordinary  composition, 
can  be  afibrded  at  a  much  less  cost.  Withal,  however,  the 
author  commends  it  to  the  favorable  regard  of  those  to 
whom  it  is  addressed. 


TO  THE  PEACTIOAL  READER 


Having  been  long  engaged  in  the  various  occupations 
into  which  a  life  of  combined  farming  and  engineering  is 
quite  sure  to  lead  any  man  of  a  practical  turn  of  mind,  I 
look  back  with  regret  on  the  days  wasted  in  making  long 
calculations  to  decide  some  simple  question  of  size,  or  form, 
or  quantity.  Many  a  long  day  have  I  hunted  through 
alcoves  full  of  practical  hand-books  at  the  Astor  Library, 
— scouring  now  the  field  of  Agriculture,  now  of  Mechanics, 
and  now  of  Hydraulics, — often  disappointed  in  my  search, 
and  compelled  to  go  home  and  work  far  into  the  night, 
pursuing,  through  the  long  lanes  of  square  and  cube  roots, 
the  phantom  of  some  every-day  question  of  the  discharge 
of  water  through  pipes,  the  strength  of  material,  or  the 
resistance  in  ploughing. 

I  have  always  found  less  assistance  than  I  had  a  right  to 
expect  from  works  written  with  the  professed  object  of 
telling  me  what  I  wanted  to  know.  After  hunting  them 
through,  I  have  generally  come  to  the  conclusion  that  they 
contain   almost  everything  except  what  I  am  looking  for. 


Xll  TO   THE    rRACTICAL    READER. 

Certainly  all  that  I  have  hitherto  seen  have  been  sadly  in- 
complete. 

Finally,  I  quite  accidentally  became  acquainted  with  Mr. 
Courtney's  Manual,  and  I  found  it  much  more  nearly  what 
it  professes  to  be  than  any  book  that  I  had  hitherto  seen, 
for,  although  he  very  modestly  complains  of  its  incomplete- 
ness, it  is  undoubtedly  much  more  thorough  and  accurate 
than  are  most  works  of  its  class. 

The  idea  occurred  to  me,  that  by  bringing  my  experience 
in  the  use  of  such  books  to  bear  upon  the  completion  and 
amendment  of  Mr.  Courtney's  work,  I  might  render  a  good 
service  to  the  thousands  who  have  almost  daily  occasion  to 
consult  a  book  of  this  character ; — and  in  some  degree 
make  up  for  the  loss  that  the  community  sustained  in  his 
death,  although  I  cannot  hope  to  bring  to  the  task  either 
the  patience  or  the  experience  that  constituted  his  great 
merit  as  a  compiler. 

It  would  be  presumption  to  claim  that,  even  in  its  en- 
larged and  corrected  condition,  this  book  is  complete,  and 
all  that  could  be  desired,  for  there  are  more  subjects  of  quite 
general  interest  to  farmers  and  mechanics  than  could  be 
properly  catalogued  in  a  book  of  this  size.  All  that  is 
claimed  is,  that  so  far  as  it  goes  it  is  correct ;  and  that  it 
goes  as  far,  and  in  as  many  directions,  as  is  compatible 
with  its  size  and  purpose. 

The  importance  of  having  such  a  book  as  this  always  at 
one's  elbow  is  very  much  greater  than  would  at  first  sight  be 
supposed  by  one  who  has  not  known  the  convenience  of  it. 


TO    THE    PRACTICAL    READER.  Xlll 

How  often,  in  farming,  do  we  wish  that  we  could  know, 
on  the  spot,  how  to  estimate  the  weight  of  hay  in  various 
conditions  in  the  mow ;  the  weight  of  cattle  by  measure- 
ment ;  the  capacity  of  a  grain  bin ;  the  weight  of  a  piece  of 
timber,  or  of  a  load  of  manure  ;  the  distance  apart  to  which 
to  set  trees  or  plants  in  order  to  get  a  certain  number 
within  a  certain  space ;  tlie  size  of  an  irregular  field.  How 
often  in  mechanics  do  we  need  to  know  the  strength  and 
measurement  of  masonry ;  the  contents  of  cisterns  and 
small  vessels ;  the  area  of  circles ;  the  quality  of  cements  ; 
the  power  value  of  fuel ;  the  weight  of  bar  iron,  or  of  lead 
pipe ;  the  fusing  heat  of  metals ;  the  strength  of  materials  ; 
or  the  board  measure  of  scantling. 

And,  worst  of  all,  how  sadly  we  accustom  ourselves  to  get 
along  without  knowing  these  things !  How  much  we  lose 
by  guessing  instead  of  knowing  ! 

The  object  of  this  book  is  to  put  it  within  the  power  of 
every  practical  man  to  knoio  these  details ; — to  leave  less  to 
guessing,  and  to  enable  him  to  guide  his  daily  operations  by 
the  light  of  positive  knowledge.  If  it  accomplishes  this 
purpose,  neither  Mr.  Courtney  nor  I  will  have  worked  in 
vain. 

In  addition  to  the  many  tables  and  statements  of  valu- 
able facts  with  which  the  book  abounds,  I  have  thought  it 
advisable  to  review  very  carefully  all  of  its  "  agricultural  " 
matter,  and  to  add  what  I  could,  in  the  space  allowed  to 
me,  that  might  be  of  interest  to  those  farmers  who  care  to 
look  a  little  beyond  the  mere  question  of  dollars  and  cents 


XIV  TO   THE    PRACTICAL    READER. 

in  farming,  and  of  value  to  those  who  belie v^e  (as,  happily, 
a  yearly  increasing  number  do  believe)  that  the  road  to 
surer  and  greater  profit  lies  through  the  door  that  Science 
and  Common  Sense — the  guardian  angels  of  Agriculture — 
hold  open  to  them. 

It  has  not  been  possible  to  do  much  in  this  direction,  for 
the  subject  is  a  very  extended  one,  but  I  think  that  many 
a  young  farmer,  if  he  will  consider  well  the  principles  that 
are  laid  down  under  the  headings  of  "  Plants,"  ''  Soils,"  and 
"  Manures,"  will  at  least  feel  a  desire  to  learn  more  of  the 
simple  truths  which  lie  at  the  foundation  of  his  practice. 

I  am  sure,  also,  that  it  is  not  too  much  to  say,  that  a 
careful  study  of  the  directions  and  the  reasons  for  Tile- 
Draining  will  richly  repay  any  occupier  of  cold,  wet  land 
for  the  purchase  of  the  book. 

This  is  a  subject  which,  in  this  country  at  least,  is  still  in 
the  very  early  infancy  of  its  progress.  Not  one  acre  in  ten 
thousand  of  the  land  that  it  would  pay  well  to  drain  in  the 
best  manner,  has  yet  felt  the  benefit  of  the  operation ;  and 
not  one  farmer  in  a  thousand  has  the  faintest  conception  of 
the  fact, — a  fact  that  ample  experience,  here  and  in  Europe, 
has  fully  demonstrated, — that  he  can  no  more  afford  to 
farm  an  undrained  heavy  soil,  than  a  carpenter  can  afiford 
to  work  with  a  dull  tool. 

I  have  introduced  another  novelty  into  the  work,  under 
the  head  of  "  The  Dry  Earth  System."  This  is  a  bantling 
that  has  raised  its  head  within  a  very  few  yeai's,  and  is  only 
now  coming  to  be  recognized  at  its  full  value ;  but  it  is 


TO    THE    PRACTICAL    READER.  XV 

ushered  before  our  attention  with  all  the  force  tliat  con- 
sideration of  decency,  health,  and  economy  can  lend ;  and 
the  most  thoughtful  attention  is  asked  for  its  claims.  It  is 
really  the  coming  Reform,  and  promises  more  for  civiliza- 
tion, and  for  national  prosperity,  than  any  improvement  that 
has  yet  been  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  public. 

To  sum  up,  then  :  this  book  is  offered  as  containing  more 
that  has  been  proven  by  long  use  to  be  of  value ;  more  that 
it  is  most  necessary  for  every  farmer  and  mechanic  to  know  ; 
and  more  ofpromising  novelty,  than  any  other  that  has  ever 
been  presented  to  the  farmers  and  mechanics  of  America. 

It  is  complete  in  every  particular  in  which  it  is  possible 
for  such  a  book  to  be  complete,  and,  in  addition  to  this,  it 
is  sufficiently  suggestive  in  many  other  respects  to  induce 
its  readers  to  read  more,  to  think  more,  to  experiment  more, 
and  to  become  more  intelligent  and  more  successful  in  the 
management  of  their  business,  as  well  as  really  happier  and 
wiser  men. 

If  it  should  be  thought  that  I  claim  too  much  for  a  single 
Hand- Book,  which  is  mainly  filled  with  dry  details  con- 
cerning the  measurement  of  boards,  and  the  spacing  of  trees 
in  an  orchard,  I  trust  that  I  shall  at  least  not  be  condemned 
as  an  enthusiast  until  the  reader  has  taken  the  trouble  to 
examine  carefully  what  I  have  to  say,  and  to  consider  well 
to  what  better  things  the  helping  hand  of  I^ature  may  lead 
him  if  he  has  the  wisdom  to  heed  its  beckonings. 

Geo.  E.  Waring,  Jr. 
Ogden  Farm,  Newport,  R.  I.,  September, 


BNeBAVINGS. 

• 

nST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAQB 

1. 

Harvest  Time 

.Frontispiece 

2. 

Illustrating  Seasons,  Longitude,  &c 

. . .       19-22 

2. 
2. 
1. 

Circular  Measure  ....         

...       23, 24 

Measure  of  Time 

. . .       25-30 

Pendulums  

31 

1. 

li 

Weather 

34 

2. 

u 

Windmills 

...       35, 36 

14. 

« 

Measurement  of  Land 

. . .       43-46 

1. 
3. 

Government  Land  Measure 

50 

Measurement  of  Hay 

. . .       61-56 

2. 

il 

"              "  Corn  in  the  Crib  . . . 

. . .       57-59 

1. 

u 

"              "  Grain  in  Granaries. 

60 

1. 

c 

"              "  Timber 

61 

1. 

(( 

"              "  Wood 

62 

1. 
2. 

il 

"              "  Round  Timber 

64 

Gauging  of  Casks 

...       79, 80 

3. 
2. 
3. 

(( 
u 

Capacity  of  Wagon  Beds 

...       82, 83 

False  Balances 

...       84, 85 

Cisterns 

. . .       86-92 

1. 

u 

Hydraulics 

97 

3. 

(( 

Hydraulic  Ram. 

...   102-109 

1. 
2. 

"          Press 

110 

Fuel 

...   115-124 

1. 

(( 

Fences 

125 

1. 

« 

Hedges 

133 

1. 
1. 

« 

Horse  Power. 

137 

Ploughing 

141 

2. 

(( 

Freighting  Vessels 

...  142-144 

25. 

u 

United  States  Money 

...  145-148 

16. 

u 

English  Money 

...   149-151 

LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


ENQEAVIKaB. 

12.  Illustrating  Avoirdupois  Weight. 
5 
6 
5 
6 
1 
1 
4 
2 
1 
1 
1 
4, 
2 
2 


24, 


Troy  "        

Apothecaries'     "        

Liquid  Measure 

Dry  "        

Square        "        

Long  "        

Cubic  "        

Metric  System  of  "Weights  and  Measures 

Specific  Gravity 

Corn  and  Pork 

Life  and  Increase  of  Animals 

The  Age  of  Animals 

"     Computed  Weight  of  Cattle 

"    Food  of  Animals 

Lightning  Rods 

Weight  of  Square  and  Rolled  Iron 

Masonry 

Mechanical  Powers — Inclined  Plane  .... 

"  "  Wedge 

"         '       "  Screw 

"  "  Pulley 

Mathematical  Definitions 

Manures 

Tile  Draining 

Butter  and  Cheese 

Steaming  Food  for  Stock 

G-ardening  for  Market 

Steam  Ploughing . 


PAOa 

152-154 

156, 157 

158, 159 

160, 161 

162-164 

165 

167 

170, 171 

177 

183 

196 

197 

201-205 

209-211 

212-215 

250 

273 

276 

282 

286 

288 

290 

292-295 

327 

363-372 

400 

414-423 

428 

448 


211 


COMMERCIAL    ABBREVIATIONS. 


@., 

At. 

^0., 

Account. 

^., 

Cents. 

^ 

Number. 

Am't., 

Amount. 

Ass'd., 

Assorted. 

Bal, 

Balance. 

BbL, 

Barrel. 

Blk., 

Black. 

Cons't., 

Consignment. 

Dft., 

Draft. 

Disc't., 

Discount. 

E.  K, 

Errors  excepted. 

Expa, 

Expenses. 

FoL, 

Folio. 

Fwd., 

Forwarded. 

Fr't., 

Freight. 

Inst., 

This  month. 

Int., 

Interest. 

Mdse., 

Merchandise. 

Mo., 

Month. 

Net, 

Without  discount 

No., 

Number. 

Pay't, 

Payment. 

Pk'gs., 

Packages. 

Per  or  pr., 

By. 

Prem., 

Premium. 

Prox., 

Next  month. 

Ps., 

Pieces. 

Sunds., 

Sundries. 

Ult, 

Last  month. 

EXPLANATION  OF  ARITHMETICAL  CHARACTERS 
USED  IN  THIS  BOOK. 


=  Equal ;  as  12  inches  =  1  foot,  or  4x5=20. 

-j-  Pltis  or  more  ;  signifies  addition,  as  3-|-5-f-7=15. 

—  Minus  or  less  ;  signifies  subtraction,  as  12—4=8. 

X  Multiplied  by  ;  signifies  multiplication,  as  8x7=56. 

-j-  Divided  by ;  signifies  division,  as,  56-t-8=7. 

:  ::  :    Proportion  ;  as  2  :  4 ::  8  :  16  ;  that  is,  as  2  is  to  4  so  is  8  to  16. 

y  Prefixed  to  a  number  denotes  that  the  square  root  of  that  number  is 
required,  as,  V36=6. 

"  V  Prefixed  to  a  number  denotes  that  the  cube  root  of  that  number  is  re- 
quired, as, '  v'27=3. 

*  Added  to  a  number  signifies  that  the  number  is  to  be  squared,  as  4* 
means  that  4  is  to  be  multiplied  by  4. 

"  Added  to  a  number  signifies  that  the  number  is  to  be  cubed,  as,  4* 
means  4  x  4  x  4=64. 

.  Decimal  point,  when  prefixed  to  a  number  signified  that  that  number 
has  an  unit  (1)  for  its  denominator,  as  .  1  is  jV,  •  2  is  1%,  .  12  is  i^oitj  ■  125  is 

o  Signifies  degrees :  '  minutes,  and  "  seconds. 


"^^A 


R 


OF   THE 


UNIVERSITY 

OF 


SEASONS,  LONlGITUDE,  &g. 

Spring. 


Autumn. 


Winter. 


To  reduce  longitude  to  time. 

The  English  count  their  degrees  of  longitude  east  and 
west  from  Greenwich,  which,  owing  to  our  early  depend- 
ence upon  the  mother  country  for  books  and  science,  became 
extensively  adopted  in  this  country,  and  still  prevails  to  a 
considerable  extent,  especially  in  our  nautical  charts,  and 


20 

works  on  navigation.  But  by  an  act  of  Congress,  passed 
some  thirty  years  ago,  the  meridian  of  Washington  was 
established  as  the  point  of  departure,  and  accordingly 
our  maps,  charts,  &c.,  have  since  been  adapted  to  that 
meridian. 

The  sun  passes  over  a  degree  of  longitude  in  4  minutes 
— the  360°  in  24  hours.  Thus,  when  we  travel  west,  or 
on  a  line  with  the  sun,  our  watch  is  four  minutes  fast  for 
every  60  geographical  miles  we  travel.  If  we  travel  east, 
or  on  a  hue  with  the  sun,  it  is  four  minutes  slow  for  every 
degree  we  travel.  Hence,  when  it  is  noon  at  Greenwich, 
that  is,  when  the  sun  is  on  the  meridian  there,  if  we  multi- 
ply Y4°,  the  longitude  of  New  York  west  from  Greenwich, 
by  4,  and  subtract  the  result  from  12  o'clock  M.,  it  will  give 
the  corresponding  time  at  Kew  York.  Thus,  74°  x  4=296 
minutes,  which,  divided  by  60,  gives  4  hours  and  56  minutes 
for  the  sun  to  travel  from  Greenwich  to  New  York. 
Subtracting  this  from  12  o'clock  (the  Greenwich  time) 
gives  7  o'clock  and  4  minutes  A.M.  as  the  corresponding 
time  at  New  York.  So  also  by  reverse,  when  it  is  noon 
at  New  York,  it  is  4  hours  and  66  minutes  past  noon 
at  Greenwich.     Hence  results  the  following 

Rule. — Multiply  the  number  of  degrees,  minutes,  and 
seconds  west  or  east  of  the  giv^en  meridian  by  4,  reduce 
the  product  to  hours,  &c.,  and  for  west  longitude  subtract 


SEASONS,    LONGITUDE,    ETC.  21 

from  12  hours,  and  for  east  longitude  add  to  12  hours  {i.  e., 
so  many  hours  past  12),  and  the  result  will  be  the  corre- 
sponding time. 

Example. — Required  the  time  at  longitude  50°  31'  west, 
corresponding  to  noon  at  Greenwich  ? 

Solution.— 50°  31^x4=3  hours  22  min.  4  sec— 12=8 
h.  37  min.  56  sec.  A.M.     Ans. 

Note. — Time  is  both  apparent  and  'mean.  The  sun  is 
on  the  meridian  at  12  o'clock  on  four  days  only  in  the 
year.  It  is  sometimes  as  much  as  16J  minutes  before  or 
after  12  Avhen  its  shadow  strikes  the  noon  mark  on  the  sun- 
dial. This  is  occasioned  by  the  irregular  motion  of  the 
earth  on  its  axis  and  the  inclination  of  its  poles.  This  is 
called  apparent  time.  Mean  time  is  determined  by  the 
equation  of  these  irregularities  for  every  day  in  the  year, 
and  is  noted  in  all  good  almanacs.  '  The  latter  is  the  true 
or  correct  time.  The  foregoing  rule  is  applicable  to 
either. 

When  you  buy  an  almanac,  buy  one  that  expresses  on 
each  calendar  page  the  m^ean  time  when  the  sun  reaches 
the  meridian,  or  the  shadow  the  noon-mark  on  the  dial, 
and  set  your  time-piece  fast  or  slow  as  indicated  in  the 
almanac. 

To  ascertain  the  len0h  of  the  day  amd  night. 
At  any  time  in  the  year,  add  12  hours  to  the  time  of  the 
sun's  setting  and  from  the  sum  subtract  the  time  of  rising 


22                                    SEASONS,    LONGITUDE,    ETC. 

for  the  length  of  the  day.     Subtract   the  time  of  setting 
from  12  hom-6,  and  to  the  remainder  add  the  time  of  rising 
the  next  morning  for  the  length  of  the  night.     This  rule  is 
true  of  either  apparent  or  mean  time. 

il21i 

^^ 

-J 

wm 

m. 

^GHI 

Z-' 

-  -:^^^2_AJ^2Ss^^^?'^'^      ^^ 

CIECULAK   OR  A:N'GULAII  MEASURE. 


This  Measure  is  used  to  measure  angles  or  the  arcs  of 
circles.  It  is  used  in  astronomy,  geography,  navigation, 
and  surveying,  and  for  calculating  differences  of  time. 


60  seconds  ('^)  make 
60  minutes  " 

30  degrees  " 

90  degrees  " 


Table. 

1  minute, 
1  degree, 
1  sign, 
1  quadrant, 
1  right  angle, 

circumference 
or  circle 


marked  ' 


v\ 


Slg. 

quad, 
r.  a. 

cir. 


l4X^^ 


4r  quadrants  or 
12  signs  " 

Notes. — 1.    The  greatest   dis- 
tance  across   a   circle   is   called 
its     diameter.      The      distance 
around   it  is  called  its  circum-  A/^    ^^^^^ 
ference.     Any  part  of  the   cir-  H 
cumference  is  called  an  arc.  "Q 

2.  If  any  circumference, 
whether  large  or  small,  be  di- 
vided into  360  equal  arcs,  each  arc  is  called  a  degree.    The 


24  dKCULAK   OR   ANGULAR   MEASURE. 

degree  is  divided  into  60  minutes,  and  the  minute  into  60 
seconds.  The  length  of  a  degree,  minute,  or  second,  de- 
pends on  the  size  of  the  circle.  If  the  size  of  the  circle  is 
increased  or  decreased,  the  length  of  the  degree,  minute, 
or  second  is  also  increased  or  decreased. 

3.  The  greatest  circumference  of  the  earth's  surface  is 
about  24,930  miles  ;  1°  of  that  circumference  is  one  360tli 
of  24,930  miles,  which  is  69^^  miles. 

4.  A  geographical  or  nautical  mile  is  equal  to  1'  of  the 
earth's  greatest  circumference,  which  is  found  to  be  a  little 
more  than  one  statute  mile  and  49  rods. 

5.  Latitude  is  measured  north  or  south  from  the  equator 
on  any  meridian,  and  is  expressed  in  degrees,  minutes,  and 
seconds ;  thus,  43°  17'  31^'  north  lat.  denotes  a  position 
43°  17'  31''  north  from  the  equator. 

6.  The  linear  extent  of  a  degree  of  longitude  depends 
upon  the  latitude,  and  diminishes  as  the  latitude  increases  ; 
thus,  at  latitude  10°  its  extent  is  359640  feet ;  at  lat.  40° 
it  is  280106  feet ;  and  at  lat.  80°  it  is  only  63612  feet. 


MEASUEE  OF  TIME. 
Time  is  the  measure  of  duration. 


60  seconds  (sec.) 
60  minutes 
24  hours 

7  days 

4  weeks  2  days,  or 
30  days 


Table. 
make  1  minute, 

"      1  Lour, 
1  day, 
1  week, 

1  month. 


u 


marked  min. 
h. 
da. 
"        wk. 


u 


mo. 


26                                              MEASURE   OF    TIME. 

365  days,  or 

52  weeks  1  day 

make  1  year, 

marked  yr.             | 

12  calendar  months  ^ 

100  years                                 " 

1  century, 

"      C. 

Tbe  calendar  year  is  divided 

as  follows : 

Season.                         Months.                      N 

0.  of  days. 

Abbreviations. 

i     1.  January 
Winter      ]    ^    ^  ,       ^ 
{    2.  February 

31 

28  or  29 

Jan. 
Feb. 

3.  March 

31 

Mar. 

Spring 

4.  April 

5.  May 

30 
31 

Apr. 

6.  June 

30 

Jun. 

Summer  - 

r.  July 

31 

1 

8.  August 

31 

Aug. 

r   9.  September 

30 

Sept. 

Autumn   i  10.  October 

31 

Oct. 

[ll.  November 

30 

Nov. 

Winter        12.  December 

31 

'<. 

Dec. 

365  or  36( 

Notes.— 1.  The  exact  length 

of  the  solai 

'  year  is  365  days     i 

6  h.  48  min.  49  sec. ;  but,  for 

convenience,  it 

:  is  reckoned 

11  min.  11  sec.  more   than    this,  or  365 

da. 

6  h.  =  365i 

days.     This  J  day  in  four  years  makes  1 

day, 

which  every 

fourth   year   (called   Bissextile 

or  leap   y 

ear) 

is   added   to 

the  shortest  month,  giving  it 

29  days. 

The  numbers  de- 

MEASURE    OF    TIME.  27 

noting  leap  years  are  exactly  divisible  by  4  ;  as,  1856,  1860, 
1864 ;  except  years  whose  number  can  be  divided  without  a 
remainder  by  100,  but  not  by  400. 

2.  Owing  to  an  error  in  the  Julian  calendar,  it  was  de- 
creed by  the  British  Government  that  the  day  following 
the  second  day  of  September,  1752,  should  be  called  the 
fourteenth  day  of  September,  or  that  11  days  should  be 
stricken  from  the  calendar. 

3.  Time,  previous  to  this  decree,  is  called  Old  Style  (O.  S.), 
and  since,  Ifew  Style  (N.  S.).  Russia  still  reckons  time  by 
the  Old  Style,  hence  their  dates  are  12  days  behind  ours. 

4.  In  most  business  transactions  30  days  are  called  a 
month,  and  52  weeks  a  year. 

5.  The  centuries  are  numbered  from  the  commencement 
of  the  Christian  era ;  the  months  from  the  commencement 
of  the  year;  the  days  from  the  commencement  of  the 
month  ;  and  the  hours  from  the  commencement  of  the  day 
(12  o'clock,  midnight),  and  from  mid-day  or  noon.  a.m. 
denotes  time  before  noon,  m.,  at  noon,  and  p.m.,  after  noon. 
Thus,  9  o'clock  a.m..  May  23,  1860,  is  the  end  of  the  ninth 
hour  of  the  23d  day  of  the  fifth  month  of  the  60th  year  of 
the  19th  century. 

6.  A  decade  is  a  period  of  10  years. 

7.  The  Lunar  Cycle,  or  Golden  Number,  is  a  period  of 
19  years,  after  which  the  changes  of  the  moon  return  on  the 
same  davs  of  the  month. 


^     OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


MEASURE   OF     TIME. 


8.  The  8olar  Cycle  is  a  period  of  28  years,  when  the 
days  of  the  week  again  return  to  the  same  days  of  the 
month. 

To  find  the  golden  number  or  lunar  cycle. 

Rule. — Add  1  to  the  given  year ;  divide  the  smn  by  19, 
and  the  remainder  is  the  golden  number. 

Example. — What  is  the  golden  number  for  1857? 

Solution. — 1857  +  1-^19=97,  rem.  15.     Ans. 

Note. — If  0  remain,  it  will  be  19.  Hence,  in  1861,  the 
changes  of  the  moon  occur  on  the  same  days  ot  the  month 
they  did  in  1842,  1823,  1804,  &c. 

Table  showing  the  number  of  days  frwn  any  day  in  one 
month  to  the  same  day  in  any  other. 


FROM 


January.  . . 
February . . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August..  . . 
September. 
October .  . , 
November. 
December . 


i 

1 

1 

1 

1^ 

June. 
July. 

fcb 

p 
< 

1 

i 

"A 

365 

81 

59 

90 

120 

151  181 

212 

243 

273 

304 

334 

3«i5 

28 

59 

89 

1201  150 

181 

212 

242 

273 

306 

337 

865 

31 

61 

92  122 

153 

184 

214 

245 

275 

306 

334 

365 

30 

61   91 

122 

153 

183 

214 

245 

276 

304 

835 

365 

31   61 

92 

123 

153 

184 

214 

245 

273 

304 

334 

365  30 

61 

92 

122 

153 

184 

215 

243 

274 

3('4 

335;  365 

31 

62 

92 

123 

153 

184 

212 

243 

273 

804  884 

365 

31 

61 

92 

122 

153 

181 

21v 

242 

273  304 

334 

365 

30 

61 

92 

123 

151 

282 

211 

248  273 

304 

335 

365 

31 

61 

92 

120 

151 

181 

212  242 

273 

304 

334 

365 

31 

61 

90 

121 

151 

182  212 

243 

274 

304 

335 

334 

303 

275 

244 

214 

183 

153 

122 

91 

61 

30 

366 


Explanation. — Find,  in  the  left-hand  column,  the  month 
from  any  day  of  which  you  wish  to  compute  the  number 
of  days  to  the  same  day  in  any  other  month,  and  follow 
the  line  along   until   under  the  latter,  and  you  have  the 


IklEASURE    OF    TIME. 

29 

required  number  of  days.     Thus,  from  the  12th  of  April 

to  the  12th  of 

October,  is  183  days  ;  from  the  7th  of  March 

to  the  7th  of  June, 

92  days. 

;     Table  for  finding 

the  number  of  days  het/ween  two  dates — 

n^w  method. 

Jan. 

'               1 

Feb. 

Mar. 

April 

May 

June 

July 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 
335 

32 

60 

91 

121 

152 

182 

213 

244 

274 

305 

!            2 

33 

61 

92 

122 

153 

183 

214 

245 

275 

306 

336 

3 

34 

62 

93 

123 

154 

184 

215 

246 

276 

307 

337 

4 

35 

63 

94 

124 

155 

185 

216 

247 

277 

308 

338 

5 

36 

64 

95 

125 

156 

186 

217 

248 

278 

309 

339 

6 

37 

65 

96 

126 

157 

187 

218 

249 

279 

310 

340 

7 

38 

66 

97 

127 

158 

188 

219 

250 

280 

311 

341 

8 

39 

67 

98 

128 

159 

189 

220 

251 

281 

312 

342 

9 

40 

68 

99 

129 

160 

190 

221 

252 

282 

313 

343 

10 

41 

69 

100 

130 

161 

191 

222 

253 

283 

814 

344 

11 

42 

70 

101 

131 

162 

192 

223 

254 

284 

315 

345 

12 

43 

71 

102 

132 

163 

193 

224 

255 

285 

316 

346 

13 

44 

72 

103 

133 

164 

194 

225 

256 

286 

317 

347 

14 

45 

73 

104 

134 

165 

195 

226 

257 

287 

318 

348 

15 

46 

74 

105 

135 

166 

196 

227 

258 

288 

319 

349 

16 

47 

75 

106 

136 

167 

197 

228 

259 

289 

320 

350 

17 

48 

76 

107 

i:^,7 

168 

198 

229 

260 

290 

321 

351 

18 

49 

77 

108 

138 

169 

199 

230 

261 

291 

322 

352 

19 

50 

78 

109 

139 

170 

200 

231 

262 

292 

323 

353 

20 

51 

79 

110 

140 

171 

201 

232 

263 

293 

324 

354 

21 

52 

80 

111 

141 

172 

202 

2:^3 

264 

294 

325 

355 

22 

53 

81 

112 

142 

173 

2(13 

234 

265 

295 

326 

356 

23 

54 

82 

113 

143 

174 

204 

235 

266 

296 

327 

357 

24 

55 

83 

114 

144 

175 

205 

236 

267 

297 

328 

358 

25 

56 

84 

115 

145 

176 

206 

2.37 

268 

298 

329 

369 

26 

57 

85 

116 

146 

177 

207 

288 

269 

299 

330 

360 

27 

58 

86 

117 

147 

178 

208 

239 

270 

300 

331 

361 

28 

59 

87 

118 

148 

179 

209 

240 

271 

301 

832 

362 

29 

88 

119 

149 

180 

210 

241 

272 

302 

333 

363 

30 

89 

120 

150 

181 

211 

242 

273 

803 

334 

364 

31 

90 

151 

212 

243 

304 

365 

Note.— To 

find! 

rom  the  above  table  the 

number  of  days 

between  two  c 

ates. 

we  give  the  following — 

30  MEASURE    OF    TIME. 

E.ULE. — I.  When  the  dates  are  in  the  same  year,  subtract 
the  number  of  days  of  the  earlier  date  from  the  number 
of  days  of  the  later  date;  the  result  will  be  the  number 
of  days  required. 

II.  When  the  dates  are  in  consecutive  years,  subtract  the 
number  of  days  of  the  earlier  date  from  365,  and  add  to 
the  remainder  the  number  of  days  of  the  later  date ;  the 
result  will  be  the  number  of  days  required. 

When  the  year  is  a  leap  year,  add  one  day  to  the  result. 


PENDULUMS. 


The  vibrations  of  pendulums  are  as  the  square  roots  of 
their  lengths.  The  length  of  one  that  will  vibrate  seconds 
in  New  York,  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  is  39.1013  inches. 

To  jmd  the  length  of  a  pendulum  for  any  given  number 
of  vibrations  per  minute. 

Rule. — As  the  number  of  vibrations  given  is  to  the 
square  root  of  39.1013  inches,  so  is  60  to  the  square  root 
of  the  length  of  the  pendulum  required. 

Example. — What  is  the  length  of  a  pendulum  that  will 
make  50  vibrations  per  minute  ? 


32 


PENDULUMS. 


Solution.— 50  :  6.25  (the  sq.  root  of  39.1013)::  60  :  7.5, 
then  7.5'^= 56.25  inches.     Ans. 

To  find  the  number  of  vibrations  per  minute^  the  length 
of  the  pendulum  being  given. 

Rule. — As  the  square  root  of  the  length  of  the  pendu- 
lum is  to  60,  so  is  the  square  root  of  39.1013  to  the  number 
of  vibrations  required. 

Example.— How  many  vibrations  will  a  pendulum  64 
inches  long  make  in  a  minute  % 

Solution. — 8  (square  root  of  64)  :  60 : :  6.25  (sq.  root  of 
39.1013)  :  46.875  vibrations.     Ans. 

Table  showing  the  planets^  comparative  size,  <&c.,  in   the 
solar  system. 


NAMES. 

Mean 
Diame- 
ter. 

Mean  dis- 
tance from 
the  Sun. 

Revolu- 
tion ar'd 
the  Sun. 

Revolu- 
tion on 
axis. 

Ill 

Size— the 
Earth  being 

111 

Thb  Spn 

Mercury 

Venus 

Miles 

883.246 

3,224 

7,687 

7,912 

2,180 

4,189 

89,170 

79,042 

35,112 

41,600 

Miles. 

36,814,000 

68,787  eOU 

95,103,000 

95,103,000 

144,9(18,000 

494,797,000 

907,162,000 

1,824,290  0!iO 

2,854.000,000 

yrs.  days 

:::  ss 

...     224 
1     ... 
1     ... 

1     £2! 

11     215 

29     167 

84         6 

164     2:6 

d.  h.  m. 
25     9  69 
1    0    6 

..   23  21 
. .  23  56 
'11     7  43 

1     0  37 
..     9  tt 
..   10  29 

1  13  33 

Miles. 

1*827 

1.338 

1,1S8 

38 

921 

496 

368 

259 

208 

1,412,921.100 

0.053 

0.909 

1.000 

0.020 

0.125 

1,456.000 

771. OW 

80.000 

143.000 

0.252 
1.120 
0.92o 
1.000 
0.615 
0.948 
0.2S8 
0.138 
0.242 
0.140 

infin. 
6.680 
1.911 

The  Earth 

TheMom 

Mars 

1.000 
1.000 
0.431 

0.037 

Saturn. ,,a»,  .... 

O.Oll 

Uranus 

Neptune 

0.003 
0.001 

THE  WEATHER. 

The  following  table,  and  the  accompanying  remarks, 
originally  formed  by  Dr.  Herschel,  and  approved  with 
some  alterations  by  the  experienced  Dr.  Adam  Clarke,  are 
'  the  result  of  many  years'  close  observation ;  the  whole 
being  on  a  due  consideration  of  the  attraction  of  the  sun 
and  moon,  in  their  several  positions  respecting  the  earth, 
and  will,  by  inspection,  show  the  observer  what  kind  of 
weather  will  most  prohably  follow  the  entrance  of  the  moon 
into  any  of  its  quarters — so  probably,  indeed,  that  it  has 
seldom  been  found  to  fail. 

Table,  for  telling  the  weather  through  all  the  lunations  of 
each  year  forever. 


TIME  OF  CHANGB. 


<A  d, 


«  o 
fl  o 

II 


Between  midnight  and  two " 
m  the  morning, 

2  and  4,  morning,  -i 

4  and  6        '* 

6  and  8        " 

8  and  10      *• 

10  and  12      «' 

At  12  o'clock  at  noon,  and 

2.  P.M. 
Between  2  and   4,  P.  M. 

4  and    6,    " 

6  and    8,    *« 

8  and  10,     «< 

10  and  midnight, 


Fair. 

Cold,    with    frequent 

showers. 
Rain. 

Wind  and  rain. 

Changeable. 

Frequent  showers. 

Very  rainy. 

Changeable. 

Fair. 

Fair,  if  wind  N.  W.    " 

Rainy,  if  S.  or  S.  W. 

Do. 

Fair. 


IJI  WINTER. 


Hard  frost,  unless  the  wind  be 
S.  or  W. 

Snow  and  stormy. 

Rain. 

Storm  V. 

Cold  rain,  if  wind  be  W. :  snow 

if  E. 
Cold  and  high  wind. 

Snow  or  rain. 

Fair  and  mild. 

Fair. 

Fair  and  frosty,  if  wind  N.  or 

N.E. 
Rain  or  snow,  if  S.  or  S.  W. 
Do. 
Fair  and  frosty. 


Observations. — 1.  The  nearer  the  time  of  the  moon's 

2* 


34 


THE    WEATHER. 


change,  fii*st  quarter,  full,  or  last  quarter  are  to  midnight, 
the  fairer  will  the  weather  be  during  the  seven  days  fol- 
lowing. 

2.  The  space  for  this  calculation  occupies  from  ten  at 
night  till  two  next  morning. 

3.  The  nearer  to  mid-day  or  noon,  the  phases  of  the 
moon  happen,  the  more  foul  or  wet  weather  may  ])e  ex- 
pected during  the  next  seven  days. 

4.  The  space  of  this  calculation  occupies  from  ten  in  the 
forenoon  to  two  in  the  afternoon.  These  observations 
refer  principally  to  the  summer,  though  they  affect  spring 
and  autumn  nearly  in  the  same  ratio. 


WIND. 


The  force  of  the  wind  increases  directly  as  the  square 
of  the  velocity.  Thus,  a  wind  blowing  10  miles  an  hour 
exerts  a  pressure  four  times  as  great  as  at  5  miles  an  hour, 
and  25  times  as  great  as  at  2  miles  an  hour. 

To  find  the  force  of  wind  acting  directly  against  a  sur- 
face. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  surface  in  square  feet  by  the  lbs. 
pressure  per  square  foot  as  given  in  the  following  table. 

Example. — What  is  the  pressure  of  a  wind  of  a  velocity 
of  20  miles  per  hour  against  a  barn  door  10  feet  by  6  ? 

Solution.— 10x6=60  sq.  ft.,  surface,  x2  lbs.,  pressure 
per  square  foot,  =  120  lbs.     Ans. 


36 


WINDMILLS. 


Table,  showirig  the  force  and  velocity  of  wind. 


Miles  per  hour. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

8 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

60 

80 

100 


Feet  per 

minute. 


176 

264 

352 

440 

528 

704 

880 

1320 

1760 

2200 

2640 

3080 

3520 

3960 

4400 

5280 

7040 

8800 


Lbs.  pressure 
on  1  sq.  foot. 


.005 
.020) 
,045  f 
.080 
.125) 
.180  V 
.320) 
.500  [ 
1.125 f 
2.000  i 
3.125f 
4.500 i 
6.125 f 
8.000 j 
10.125 f 
12.500 
18.000 
32.000 
50.000 


DescrlptlOQ. 


Barely  observable. 
Just  perceptible. 
Light  breeze. 

Gentle,  pleasant  wind. 

Brisk  blow. 
Very  brisk. 
High  wind. 

Very  high. 

Storm. 

Great  Btorm. 

Hurricane,  [ing  off  buildings,  &c. 

Tornado,  uprooting  trees,  sweep- 


The  mechanical  force  of  wind  is  well  illustrated  in  the 
old-fashioned  windmills,  which  were  used  for  the  purpose  of 


"Windmill. 


raising  water  and  grinding  grain,  where  facilities  for  steam 
or  water-power  were  w^anting. 


AVERAGE  TEMPERATURE  AND  FALL  OF  RAIN. 


Table,  slioioing  the  average  temperature  of  the  four  Sea- 
sons at  points  on  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  coasts^  and 
the  interior  of  this  continent. 


Pacific  Coast. 

Monterey, 

San.  Francisco 

Astoria 

LSTEEIOE. 

St.  Louis  Arsenal, 

Chicago 

Fort  Ripley 

Atlantic  Coast. 

Fort  Monroe,  near  Norfolk, 

Fort  Columbus.  N.  Y.  Harbor, 
Fort  Sullivan.  Eastport, 


TEMPERATURE. 


Latitude.  Spring.   Summer  Autumn    Winter. [   Year. 


36036' 
37048' 
46011' 

38O40' 
41052' 
46019' 

370 

40O42' 

44015' 


530-99 
540.41 

510-16 

540  15 
44090 
390 -33 

560-87 
480.74 
400-15 


580.64!5'70-29 
570-33560  83 
610-58  530-76 


760-19 
670-33 
64094 

760-57 
720-10 
600-50 


550-44 

480-85 
420-91 

610-68 
540  55 
47052 


510-22 
500-86 
42^-43 

320-27 
25c -90 
IGOQl 

400-45 
310-38 
230  90 


550 -29 

540-88 
520-23 

540-51 
460-75 
390-30 

680-89 
510-69 
430-02 


From  this  table  it  will  be  perceived  that  Astoria,  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  and  Fort  Ripley  in  the  interior,  are  in  about 
the  same  latitude.  Astoria,  though  650  ^  miles  north  of 
Monterey,  is  only  3  degrees  colder.  Fort  Ripley  is  fifteen 
degrees  colder  than  St.  Louis,  although  it  is  only  about 
500  miles  further  north. 

San  Francisco,  St.  Louis,  and  Fort  Monroe,  are  in  about 
the  same  latitude.  The  difference  between  the  mean  sum- 
mer and  winter  temperature  of  San  Francisco  is  less  than 
seven  degrees;  of  St.  Louis,  nearly  forty  four  degrees; 
and  of  Fort  Monroe,  thirty-six  degrees.  Eastport  is  two 
degrees  south  of  Astoria,  but  is  nine  degrees  colder. 


38       AVERAGE  TEMPERATURE  AND  FALL  OF  RAIN. 

The  United  States  may  be  divided  with  reference  to  the 
fall  of  rain  into  three  regions,  namely :  the  region  of  peri- 
odical rains,  the  region  of  frequent  rains,  and  the  region 
of  scanty  rains. 

The  region  of  periodical  rains  comprises  the  western 
division  of  the  Pacific  slope. 

In  that  portion  of  this  division  south  of  the  4:0th  parallel 
of  latitude,  scarcely  any  rain  falls  in  summer,  and  very 
little  in  autumn.  The  quantity  in  winter  somewhat  ex- 
ceeds that- which  falls  during  the  spring. 

A  much  greater  quantity  of  rain  falls  upon  that  part  of 
the  division  north  of  lat.  40°  than  south  of  it ;  but,  as  in 
the  southern  division,  the  largest  amount  belongs  to  the 
winter  and  spring. 

Tlie  region  of  frequent  rains  extends  from  the  Atlantic 
coast  westward  to  about  the  100th  meridian  of  longitude. 
This  region,  considered  as  a  whole,  is  exceedingly  well 
watered,  the  rain  being  quite  equally  distributed  through 
the  different  seasons. 

From  an  examination  of  the  table,  it  will  appear  that 
along  the  Atlantic  slope,  as  far  south  as  Washington,  very 
nearly  the  same  annual  quantity  of  rain  falls ;  and  that  it 
is  very  equally  distributed  throughout  the  year.  In  the 
Gulf  States,  and  along  the  Atlantic  slo})e  south  of  Wash- 
ington, the  annual  amount  of  rain  is  much  greater  than  in 
the  other  sections,  and  the  summer  rains  are  much  more 
abundant  than  those  of  the  winter.      In  the  interior  the 


AVERAGE  TEMPERATURE  AND  FALL  OF  RAIN.       6\) 

annual  quantity  is  less,  and  generally  much  less  rain  falls 
in  winter  than  in  the  other  seasons. 

The  region  of  scanty  rains  embraces  the  country  between 
about  the  100th  meridian  of  longitude  and  the  Cascade 
and  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains.  It  includes  the  northern 
and  southern  divisions  of  the  Pacilic  slope,  the  inland  basin 
of  Utah,  the  table-lands  of  the  Texas  slope,  and  the  sterile 
region  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Among  the  mountains  of  this  region  a  considerable 
quantity  of  rain  falls,  and  violent  showers  are  experienced 
in  all  seasons  of  the  year.  8ome  of  the  mountain  valleys 
are  also  well  watered.  Thus  the  annual  fall  of  rain  at 
Santa  Fe,  situated  on  a  plateau  enclosed  by  mountains,  is 
19.83  inches ;  and  the  fall  at  Fort  Massachusetts,  which  is 
situated  in  a  valley  100  miles  further  north,  is  20.54  inches. 

The  annual  fall  of  rain  in  the  desert  resrion,  throup:h 
which  the  great  Colorado  flows,  is  estimated  at  three  inches  ; 
that  of  the  inland  basin  of  Utah,  at  live  inches;  of  the 
Great  Plain  south  of  the  Columbia  River,  ten  inches ;  of 
the  Llano  Estacado,  ten  inches ;  and  of  the  sterile  region 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
inches.  In  all  these  sections  scarcely  any  rain  falls  in 
summer. 

The  greatest  amount  of  rain  reported  in  the  "Army 
Meteorological  Register,"  for  any  given  year,  was  the  fall, 
in  1846,  at  Baton  Rouge,  of  116.6  inches;  the  least,  a  fall, 
in  1853,  at  Fort  Yuma,  (^alifornia,  of  1.78  inches. 


40 


AVERAGE  TEMPERATURE  AND  FALL  OF  RAIN. 


[This  valuable  Table  is  compiled  from  the  "  Army  Meteorological  Regis- 
ter," and  presents  the  results  of  all  the  records,  in  the  Army  Medical  Bu- 
reau, for  33  years,  from  1822  to  the  close  of  1854  ] 
Table,  shewing  the  latitude  and  longitude,  the  elevation  above  the  level  of 

the  sea,  the  mean  annual  temperature,  and  the  average  annual  fall  of  rain 

at  various  places  in  the  United  States. 


Name  o?  Place  of  Observation. 


Fort  Kent,  Maine . . . , . .  o 

Fort  Fairfield,  Maine 

Hancock  Barracks,  Maine , 

Fort  Sullivan.  Eastport,  Maine  . .  „  o 

Fort  Preble,  Portland,  Maine 

Fort  Constitution,  Portsmouth,  N.H, 
Fort  Independence,  Bost.  Har  ,Mass 

Watertown  Arsenal,  Mass 

Fort  Adams,  Rhode  Island 

Fort  Wolcott,  Newport  Harbor,  R.  I. 
Fort  Trumbull,  New  London.  Conn. 

Fort  Columbus,  N.  Y.  Harbor . 

Fort  Hamilton,  N.  Y.  Harbor 

West  Point,  New  York  ........... 

"Watervliet  Arsenal,  New  York  . . . . 

Plattsburg  Barracks.  New  York  . , . 
Sackett's  Harbor,  New  York. . .  „ . . 

Fort  Ontario,  New  York 

Fort  Niagara,  New  York 

Buffalo  Barracks  New  York. » .  o . . . 
Alleghany  Arsenal.  Pittsburg,  Pa.. 
Carlisle  Barracks,  Carlisle,  Pa, . .  o . . 

Fort  Mifflin,  Pa ,» 

Fort  Delaware,  Del ,  o . . . . . 

Fort  McHenry.  Md o . . . . . 

Fort  Severn.  Md « 

Washington  City,  D.  C 

Fort  Washington,  Md 

Bellona  Arsenal,  Richmoud,  Va 

Fort  Monroe.  Va 

Fort  Macon,  N.  C » 

Fort  Johnston,  N.  C o . . . . 

Augusta  Arsenal,  Ga 

Fort  Moultrie,  Charleston,  S  C 

Oglethorpe  Barracks.  Ga 

Fort  Marion,  St  Augustine,  Fla 

Fort  Shannon.  Pi'atka.  East  Fla. .  . 
New  Smyrna,  East  Fla 


» 

47015' 

46  46 

46  07 

44  54 

43  39 

43  04 

42  20 

41  21 

41  29 

41  30 

41  21 

40  42 

40  37 

41  23 

42  43 

44  41 

43  57 

43  20 

43  18 

42  53 

40  32 

40  12 

39  53 

39  35 

39  17 

38  58 

38  53 

38  43 

37  20 

37 

34  41 

34 

33  28 

32  45 

32  05 

29  38 

29  34 

28  54 

68O35 

67  49 
67  49 
66  58 
70  20 

70  49 
71 

71  09 
71  20 

71  20 

72  06 
74  01 

74  02 
74 

73  43 
73  25 
76  15 

76  40 

79  08 
78  68 

80  02 

77  14 

75  13 

75  34 
71  35 

76  27 

77  02 
77  06 

77  25 
76  18 
76  40 

78  05 

81  53 

79  51 
81  07 
81  35 
81  48 
81  02 


JS 

II  1 

ratio 
the 
the 
feet 

Ele^ 
above 
el  of 
lu 

Mean 
temp 

575 

370-04 

415 

38-11 

620 

40-51 

70 

43  02 

20 

45-22 

40 

45-81 

50 

48-92 

47-34 

40 

49-70 

20 

50-72 

23 

49-62 

23 

51  69 

25 

51-54 

167 

50-73 

50? 

48-07 

186 

44. 

262 

46-38 

250 

46-44 

250 

47.91 

660 

46.25 

704 

50.86 

500 

51  10 

20 

53-85 

10 

56-06 

36 

54-36 

20 

55-42 

50-90 

5614 

60 

57-87 

120 

59-27 

8 

58-89 

20 

62-23 

20 

65-68 

600? 

6401 

25 

66-58 

40 

67-44 

25 

69-61 

25 

69-64 

20 

69-17 

«  s  d 

-<  g 
36«46 

36-97 
39-39 
45-25 
35-57 
35  30 
42-07 
52-46 

45-69 
42-23 
43-65 
54- 15 
34-55 
33-39 
39-78 
30  =  88 
31-77 
38-80 
34  =  96 
34  01 
45-27 

42- 
48-61 
41-20 
45  02 

50.89 

46.01 
23- 

44-92 
53-33 
31-80 
48-68 


AVERAGE  TEMPERATURE  AND  FALL  OF  RAIN. 


41 


Tahle  continued. 


Name  of  Place  of  Observation, 


Fort  Pierce,  East  Fla „  o .  o  ^ . 

Fort  Dallas.  East  Fla. .......  o . „ 

Key  West.  Fla. . . . 

Fort  Myers,  South  Fla.  o , 

Fort  Brooke,  Tampa  Bay,  Fla 

Fort  Meade,  Fla. , o ...... . 

Fort  Micanopy ,  Fla 

Fort  King,  Fla..o,.,..o 

Cedar  Keys.  Fla .  o , . .  = . . . 

Fort  Fanning,  Fla , . , 

Fort  Barrancas.  Pensacola,  Fla.  „ 
Fort,  Morgan,  Ala ..,....,.  c ,., . 
Mt.  Vernon  Arsenal,  Ala  .o ..... . 

Fort  Pike.  La . . , , . . , . 

Fort  Wood.  La . . , .  c ,  o . .  o , . 

New  Orleans,  La . , .  ^ o . 

Baton  Rouge,  La ....  ^ ....  o  o ... . 

Fort  Jessup.  La , 

Fort  Tovvson,  Ind.  Ter 

Fort  Washita,  Indian  Ter. ...... 

Fort  Smith.  Arkansas 

Fort  Gibson,  Ind  Ter „ , . , 

Fort  Scott,  Mo , . , ,.,.....  o 

Jeflferson  Barracks.  Mo  .<,...,..  o . 

St  Louis  Arsenal.  Mo 

Newport  Barracks,  Newport,  Ky. 

Detroit.  Mich 

Fort  Gratiot,   Mich  ...,,.., 

Fort  Mackinac,  Mich .  o ..... 

Fort  Dearborn.  Chicago,  111 

Fort  Brady.  Mich . , , ....... 

Fort  Wilkins,  Mich \ 

Fort  Howard.  Wis 

Kort  Winnebago    Wis 

Fort  Crawford.  Wis o . . 

Fort  Armstrong,  111 . . 

Fort  Atkinson  Iowa. . , , . . . 

Fort  Des  Moines,  Iowa 

Fort  Ripley.  Minnesota 

Fort  Snelling  Minn 

Fort  Leavenworth.  Kansas. . , . . . 

Council  Bluffs  Nebraska 

Fort  Kearney,  Nebraska 

Fort  Laramie    Nel>raska 

FortArbuckle    Ind    Ter   

Fort  Be  knap  Texas 


®  S.d 

Ull 

'i\ 

%-oi 

■§ 

atk 
the 
he 
eet 

% 

SS-2 

1 

Long 
West 
Green 

Ele\ 
above 
el  of 

II 

27030' 

80O20' 

30 

730-20 

62-98 

25  55 

80  20 

20 

74-75 

24  32 

8i  48 

10 

76-51 

47-65 

26  38 

82  02 

50 

75-04 

62-26 

28 

82  28 

20 

71-92 

55-47 

28  01 

82 

80 

71-48 

40-22 

29  30 

82  28 

60? 

70-09 

29  10 

82  10 

50 

70- 

29  07 

83  03 

35 

69-60 

48  50 

29  35 

83 

50 

70-20 

30  18 

87  27 

20 

68-74 

66-98 

30  14 

88 

20 

66-88 

31  12 

88  02 

200? 

65-84 

63-50 

30  10 

89  38 

10 

69-86 

7192 

30  08 

89  51 

20 

69-25 

60  "63 

29  57 

90 

10 

69-86 

50  90 

30  26 

91  78 

41 

68-14 

62  10 

31  33 

93  32 

80? 

66-34 

45-85 

34 

95  33 

300? 

61-69 

51-08 

24  14 

96  38 

645 

62-21 

41-66 

35  23 

94  29 

460 

60-02 

42  10 

34  47 

95  10 

560 

60-81 

36-46 

37  45 

94  35 

1000? 

54-50 

42-12 

38  28 

90  15 

472 

55-46 

37-83 

38  40 

90  05 

450 

54-51 

41-95 

39  05 

84  29 

500 

55-26 

42  20 

82  58 

580 

47-25 

30-07 

42  55 

82  23 

598 

46-29 

32-62 

45  51 

84  32 

728 

40-65 

23-87 

41  52 

87  35 

591 

46-75 

46  30 

84  43 

600 

40-37 

31-35 

47  30 

88 

620 

41- 

44  30 

88  05 

620 

44-49 

34-66 

43  31 

89  28 

770? 

44-80 

27-49 

43  05 

91 

642 

47-63 

31-40 

41  30 

90  40 

528 

50-31 

43 

92 

700? 

45-50 

39-74 

41  32 

93  38 

780 

49-74 

26-56 

46  19 

94  19 

1130 

39-30 

29-48 

44  53 

93  10 

820 

44-64 

25-43 

39  21 

94  44 

896 

52-78 

30-29 

41  30 

95  48 

1250 

49-28 

40  38 

98  57 

2360 

47-67 

27.98 

42  12 

104  47 

4519 

50  0(i 

19-98 

34  27 

97  09 

1000? 

60-83 

30-57 

33  08 

98  48 

1600? 

63-99 

22- 

42 


AVERAGE  TEMPERATURE  AND  FALL  OF  RAIN. 


Table  continued. 


Namv  o*  Place  of  Observation. 


Fort  Worth,  Texas 

Phantom  Hill,  Texas „ 

Fort  Chadbourne,  Texas,  c 

Fort  Graham.  Texas o . . . .  o . 

JFort  Gates,  Texas 

Fort  Croghan,  Texas. o . . . 

San  Antonio.  Texas 

Fort  Merrill,  Texas. 

Fort  Ewell,  Texas „ 

Corpus  Christi.  Texas . . . .  o 

Fort  Brown,  Texas ^  o 

Ringgold  Barracks,  Texas 

Fort  Mcintosh,  Texas 

Fort  Duncan^  Eagle  Pass,  Texas. . . 

Fort  Inge.  Texas „  c 

Fort  Lincoln.  Texas. » .........  o . . 

Fort  Clark,  Texas 

Fort  Fillmore,  New  Mexico ....... 

Fort  Webster,  New  Mexico 

Fort  Conrad,  New  Mexico. 

Albuquerque.  New  Mexico. 

Cebolleta  and  Laguna,  New  Mexico 

Santa  Fe',  New  Mexico. . .  „ 

Las  Vegas,  New  Mexico. . . .  „ 

Fort  Union,  New  Mexico 

Fort  Massachusetts,  New  Mexico .  „ . 

Fort  Defiance  New  Mexico. 

Fort  Yuma,  California 

San  Diego,  California 

Posts  Del  ChJno  and  Jurupa,  Cal'a. 

Monterey   California 

Fort  Miller,  California 

San  Francisco.  California 

Benicia  Barracks.  California 

Sacramento,  California 

Fort  Reading,  California 

Fort  Humboldt,  California 

Fort  Jones.  California 

Fort  Orford,  California 

Fort  Vancouver.  Oregon 

Fort  Dalles,  Oregon 

Fort  Steilacoom.  Washington  Ter . . 

Astoria  Oregon       

Great  Salt  Lake,  Utah 


®  Sxj 

^ 

3 

m 

32O40' 

97025' 

32  30 

99  45 

31  38 

100  40 

31  66 

97  26 

31  26 

97  49 

30  40 

98  31 

29  25 

98  25 

28  17 

^^ 

28  05 

98  57 

27  47 

97  27 

25  54 

97  26 

26  23 

99  02 

27  31 

99  21 

28  42 

100  30 

29  09 

99  07 

29  22 

99  33 

29  17 

100  25 

32  13 

106  42 

32  48 

108  04 

33  34 

107  09 

35  06 

106  38 

35  03 

107  14 

35  41 

106  02 

35  35 

105  16 

35  54 

104  57 

87  32 

105  23 

35  44 

109  15 

32  43 

114  36 

32  42 

117  14 

34 

117  25 

36  36 

121  52 

37 

119  40 

37  48 

122  26 

38  03 

122  08 

38  33 

121  20 

40  30 

122  05 

40  46 

124  09 

41  36 

122  52 

42  44 

124  29 

45  40 

122  30 

45  36 

120  55 

47  10 

122  25 

40  11 

123  48 

40  46 

112  06 

"S5  55 


wg 


1100? 
2300? 
2120 

900? 
1000? 
1000? 
600 
150? 
200 
20 
50 
200? 
400 
800 
845 
900? 
1000 
3937 
6350 
4576 
5032 
6000 
6846 
6418 
6670 
8365 
7200? 
120 
150 
10005 
140 
402 
150 
64 
50 
674 
50 
2570 
50 
50 
350 
300? 
5U 
4351 


ii 


630  54 


52  23 
53-24 


^11 

ss-sa 

«  S  fl 


40-86 
17-22 
31-88 
40-68 


36-56 

33-77 

30-82 

33 

65 

20 

95 

18 

66 

22 

20 

27 

99 

20 

58 

21 

80 

9 

28 

8 

79 

6 

76 

9 

42 

12 

05 

19 

83 

19 

24 

19 

24 

20 

54 

16 

64 

3 

24 

10 

43 

13 

77 

12 

20 

24 

51 

23 

59 

16 

62 

21 

32 

29 

02 

16 

77 

16 

77 

68 

52 

45 

50 

14.32 

51 

75 

MEASUREMENT  OF  LAND. 


Every  farmer  should  know  the  contents,  in  acres,  of 
each  of  his  fields,  meadows,  and  lots,  to  ascertain  which  he 
should  have  a  rod  measure,  a  light  stiff  pole,  just  16^  feet 
long,  with  division  marks  on  it  of  a  yard  each,  making 
6^  yards.  Provided  with  this  measure,  and  proceeding 
according  to  the  following  rules,  he  can  ascertain  the 
area  in  acres  of  each  of  his  fields,  lots,  &c. 


u 


MEASUREMENT   OF    LAND. 


Where  the  field  is  a  square,  a  j^arallelogram,  a  rhombus, 
or  a  rhomboid. 


Rhomboid. 


Square.  Parallelogram.  Rhombus. 

HuLE. — Multiply  the  length  in  rods  by  the  breadth  in 
rods,  and  divide  the  product  by  160,  and  the  quotient  will 
be  the  number  of  acres. 

Example. — What  is  the  area  in  acres  of  a  field  of  30 
rods  long  by  28  rods  wide. 

Solution. — 30x28=840-^160=5  acres  and  40  rods,  or 
5 J  acres.     Ans. 

Where  the  field  is  triangular. 


Rule. — Multiply  the  base  or  longest  side,  in  rods,  by 
the  perpendicular  height  {i.e.,  the  greatest  width),  in  rods, 
and  divide  half  the  product  by  160,  and  the  quotient  will 
be  the  number  of  acres. 

Example. — What  is  the  area  in  acres  of  a  triangular 
field,  the  base  of  which  is  60  rods  long,  and  its  perpendA- 
cular  height  28  rods  ? 

Solution.— 60  x  28=1680-^.2=840-^160=5  acres  and  40 
rods,  or  5J  acres.     Ans. 


MEASUREMENT   OF   LAND. 


45 


When  the  field  is  a  trapezium  or  a  trapezoid. 


y 


Trapezium.  Trapezoid. 

Rule. — Divide  it  diagonally  by  a  line  running  from 
one  extreme  corner  to  the  other,  which  will  cut  the  field 
into  two  triangles ;  then  proceed  with  each  as  in  the  fore- 
going rule,  and  add  the  areas  of  the  two  triangles  together. 
The  product  will  be  the  number  of  acres. 

Where  the  field  is  an  irregular  polygon. 


EuLE. — Draw  diagonals  to  divide  the  field  into  tri- 
angles; find  the  area  of  each  separately,  and  the  sum  of 
the  whole  will  be  the  number  of  acres. 

Note. — There  are  very  few  fields  or  lots  which  cannot 
be  measured  by  cutting  them  into  triangles,  and  proceed- 
ing by  the  above  rule.  In  fact,  all  straight-sided  fields 
can  be  so  measured. 


46 


MEASUREMENT   OF    LAND. 


Whe7'e    the  field  is   long^   and  the   sides   crooked   and 
irregular. 


Rule. — Take  the  breadth  in  rods  in  a  number  of  places, 
at  equal  distances  apart ;  add  them,  and  divide  the  sum  by 
the  number  of  breadths  for  the  mean  average  or  breadth ; 
then  multiply  that  by  the  length  in  rods  and  divide  the 
product  by  160,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of 
acres. 

Example. — What  is  the  area  in  acres  of  a  long  irregular- 
sided  field,  the  length  of  which  is  80  rods,  and  its  breadths 
at  10  rods  apart  are  as  follows,  viz. :  8,  10,  11,  9,  8,  7,  9, 
10  rods  ? 

Solution.  — 8  +  10  +  11  +  9  +  84-7  +  9  +  10  =  72 -?- 8  =  9 
rods  mean  breadth;  then  9  x  80 =720 -r  160 =4  acres  and 
80  rods,  or  ^\  acres.     Ans. 

Where  the  field  is  long,  and  the  sides  and  ends  crooked 
and  irregular. 


MEASUREMENT    OF    LAND.  47 

Rule. — Find  the  mean  breadth  in  rods  by  the  foreg-oinij 
rule,  and  proceed  in  like  manner  to  find  the  mean  length 
in  rods ;  then  multiply  the  mean  length  by  the  mean 
breadth,  and  divide  the  product  by  160,  and  tlie  quotient 
will  be  the  number  of  acres. 

Example. — What  is  the  area  in  acres  of  a  field  of  irre- 
gular sides  and  ends,  the  various  breadths  of  which  are  as 
follows,  viz. :  9,  6,  7,  8,  10  and  8  rods,  and  the  lengths  as 
follows,  viz. :  50,  40,  30  and  40  rods  ? 

Solution.— 9  -|-64-74-8-^10-f8  =  48-^6  =  8  rods  mean 
breadth. 

50  +  40  +  30  +  40  =  160  -^  4  =  40  rods  mean 
length. 

Then  40  x  8^=320-^160=2  acres.     Ans. 
Where  the  field  is  a  circle. 

Rule. — Take  the  diameter  in  rods,  and  find  the  area  of 
the  circle  in  the  table  of  circles  on  page  ,  and  divide  it 
b}'  160,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  acres. 

Example. — What  is  the  area  in  acres  of  a  circular  field 
22  rods  in  diameter? 

Solution. — 380,  area  of  circle, -f- 160 =2  acres  and  80 
rods,  or  2|^  acres.     Ans. 

An  acre  of  land  is  contained  in  a  plot, 

3  by  53|  rods  7  by  22f  rods  10  by  16     rods 

4  by  40      "  8  by  20      "  11  by  14-X    " 

5  by  32      ''  9  by  17^   "  12  bV  13 1      " 
6by26t    '' 

12  rods  10  feet  and  8^  inches  square  make  an  acre. 


48 


MEASUREMENT   OF    LAND. 


It    is    often  desirable,  for  experimental  and  other  pur- 
poses, for  a  farmer  to  lay  off  small  portions  of  his  ground. 
To  enable  him  to  do  so,  we  have  compiled  the  following : 
Table,  showing  the  square  feet  and  the  feet  square  of  the 
fractions  of  an  acre. 


Fractions  of 
an  acre. 

Square  feet. 

Feet  square. 

Fractions  of 
an  acre. 

Square  feet. 

Feet  square. 

.1- 
1  I) 

i 

i 

2722^ 
5455 
10890 
14520 

52i 

73f 

104i 

12U 

1 

2 

21780 
43560 
87150 

1471 
208 
418      • 

Table,  showing  the  nuinher  of  hills  or  jplants  on  an  acre 
of  land,  for  any  distam.ce  apart,  from  10  inches  to  6 
feet — the  lateral  and  longitudinal  distances  heing  unequal. 


10  in. 

12  in.  15  in. 

18  in. 

20  in. 

2  ft. 

2Jft. 

3  ft. 

.3i  ft. 

4  ft. 

4ift. 

5  ft. 

5ift. 

6ft._ 

10  in. 

62726 

12    " 

.52272 

43560 ' 

1.5    " 

41817 

34848  27878 

18    " 
20    " 

34848 

29040  2.3232 
26136  20908 

19360 
17424 

1.5681 

2  feet 

261.36 

21780  17424 

14520 

1.3068 

10890 

2i    " 

20908 

17424  139.39 

11616 

104.54 

8712    6969 

.3      " 

17424 

14520  11616 

9680 

8712 

7260   5808 

4^40 

3i    " 

149.3,5 

12446    9953 

8297 

7467 

62231  4976 

4148 

3565 

4      " 

1.3068 

10890    8712 

7260 

6534 

5445    4.356 

3630 

3111 

2722 

4i    " 

11616 

9680    7744 

64.53 

5808 

48401  3872 

3226 

2767 

2420 

2151 

5      " 

mi.54 

8712    6969 

5808 

5227 

4:356;  .3484 

2904 

2489 

2178 

1936 

1742 

5i    " 

9504 

7920    6.336 

5280 

4752 

39()0    3168 

2640 

226;3 

1980 

1760 

1584 

1440 

6*    " 

8712 

7260    5808 

4840 

4:i56 

36.30    2904 

2420 

2074 

1865 

1613 

1452 

1^320 

1210 

Explanation. — Find  the  distance  between  jour  plants 
or  hills  the  widest  way  in  the  left  hand  column,  then  trace 
the  line  in  which  it  stands  to  the  right,  until  it  intersects 
the  column  headed  by  the  number  that  expresses  the  dis- 
tance of  the  narrow  way,  where  you  will  find  the  number 
sought. 


MEASUREMENT   OF   LAND. 


49 


ExAMPi/K. — The  rows  of  corn  in  a  corn-iield  are  5J  feet 
apart,  and  the  plants  20  inches  apart,  in  drill  or  hill ;  re- 
quired, the  number  of  hills  or  plants  in  an  acre  ? 

Solution. — Find  5 J  feet  (the  distance  of  the  rows  apart), 
in  the  left  hand  column,  then  trace  the  line  along  unto  the 
column  headed  by  20  inches  (the  distance  of  the  plants  or 
hills  apart),  and  you  have  4752.     Ans. 

Table,  showing  the  number  of  plants^  hills,  a?'  trees  con- 
tained in  an  acre  at  equal  distances  apart,  from  3  inches 
tip  to  (J6  feet. 


Distance  apart.  No.  of  plants. 

8  inches  by  3  inches 696,9G0 

4      "       by  4     "    392,040 

6      **      by  6     "    174,240 

9  *'      by  9     "    77,440 

1  foot  by  I  foot 43,560 

IJ  feet  by  IJ  feet 19,360 

2  "    by  Ifoot 21,780 

2  "    by  2  feet 10,890 

2J    ''    by  2^  "    .     C,960 

3  ♦'    by  1  foot 14,520 

3     "    by  2  feet 7,260 

3  "    by  3    "   4,840 

3J    "    by3J  "   3,555 

4  "    by  Ifoot 10,890 

4      "    by  2  feet 5,445 

4      •'    by  3    " 8,63J 

4  "    by  4    " 2,722 

4J    •'    bj4J  "   2,151 

6      '•    by  Ifoot 8,712 

5  "    by  2  feet 4,356 

5      "    by3     "   2,904 

5      'by  4    "  2,178 

5      ••    by  6    «  1,742 

6i    "    by  6J  "  1,417 


Distance  apart.                          No.  of  plants. 

6  feet  by  6  feet 1.210 

H   "  by  6^  "  1.031 

7  ♦•  by7  "  881 

8  *'  by  8  "  680 

9  "  bv9  "  637 

10  "  by  10  "  435 

11  '•  by  11  '*  360 

12  "  by  12  ♦♦ 302 

13  "  by  13  "  257 

14  "  by  14  "  222 

15  ♦'  by  15  "  193 

16  ♦'  byl6  "  170 

16J  "  by  16A"  160 

17  "  by  17  "  160 

18  "  byl8  *'  134 

J9  "  by  19  "  120 

20  "  by  20  *'  108 

25  '♦  by  25  •*  69 

30  "  by  30  " 48 

83  *'  by33  " 40 

40  "  by  40  "  27 

60  "  bySO  •♦  17 

60  "  by  60  "  12 

66  "  by66  "  10 


GOYEKKMENT  LAND  MEASUKE. 

A  township  is  6  miles  square,  and  contains  36  sections, 
or  23,040  acres. 

A  section  is  1  mile  square,  and  contains  640  acres. 

A  quarter-section  is  half  a  mile  square,  and  contains  160 
acres. 

A  half  quarter-section  is  half  a  mile  long,  almost  uni- 
versally north  and  south,  and  one-fourth  of  a  mile  wide, 
and  contains  80  acres. 

A  quarter  quarter-section  is  one-fourth  of  a  mile  square, 
and  contains  40  acres.  It  is  the  smallest  sized  tract, 
except  fractions,  sold  by  the  government. 


MEASUREMENT  OF  HAY. 


There  is  no  accurate  mode  of  measuring  hay  but  by 
weighing  it.  This,  on  account  of  its  bulk  and  character, 
is  very  difficult,  unless  it  is  baled  or  otherwise  compacted. 
This  difficulty  has  led  farmers  to  estimate  the  weight  by 
the  bulk  or  cubic  contents,  a  mode  which,  from  the  nature 
of  the  commodity,  is  only  approximately  correct.  Some 
kinds  of  hay  are  light,  while  others  are  heavy,  theiV  equal 
bulks  varying  in  weight.  But  for  all  ordinary  farming 
purposes  of  estimating  the  amount  of  hay  in  meadows, 
mows,  and  stacks,  the  following  rules  will  be  found  sufficient. 


62  MEASUREMENT   OF    HAY. 

As  nearly  as  can  be  ascertained,  10  cubic  yards  of  aver- 
age meadow  hay,  in  windrows,  make  a  ton. 

When  well  settled  in  mows  or  stacks,  5  cubic  yards 
make  a  ton. 

When  taken  out  of  mows  or  old  stacks,  and  loaded  on 
wagons,  8  cubic  yards  make  a  ton. 

Eleven  or  twelve  cubic  yards  of  clover,  when  dry,  make 
a  ton. 

To  find  the  nuniber  of  tons  of  meadow  hay  raked  into 
windrovjs. 

KuLE. — Multiply  the  length  of  the  windrow  in  yards  by 
the  width  in  yards,  and  tliat  product  by  the  height  in  yards, 
and  divide  by  10;  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  tons 
in  the  windrow. 

Example. — How  many  tons  of  hay  in  a  windrow  40  yards 
long  by  2  wide  and  2  high  ? 

Solution.— 40  x  2  x  2=160-^-10=16.     Ans. 

To  finfid  the  number  of  tons  of  hay  in  a  mow. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  length  in  yards  by  the  height  in 
yards,  and  that  by  the  width  in  yards,  and  divide  the  pro- 
duct by  5  ;  the  quotient  w^ill  be  the  number  of  tons. 

Exa:^ple. — How  many  tons  of  well-settled  hay  in  a  mow 
10  yards  long  by  6  wide  and  8  high  ? 

Solution.— 10  x  6  x  8=480-^6=96  tons.     Ans, 


MEASUREMENT   OF    HAY.  53 

To  jmd  the  number  of  tons  of  hay  in  old  stacks. 


Rule. — Find  the  area  in  square  yards  of  the  base  in  the 
table  of  the  areas  of  circles  on  page  ,  or  by  the  rule 
given  on  page  ;  then  multiply  the  area  of  the  base  by 
half  the  altitude  of  the  stack  in  yards,  and  divide  the  pro- 
duct by  5  ;  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  tons. 

Example. — How  many  tons  of  hay  in  a  circular  stack, 
whose  diameter  at  the  base  is  8  j^ards,  and  height  9  yards  ? 

Solution. — 50.265,  area  of  base  in  sq.  yards,  x  4^,  half 
the  altitude,  =226.192^5=45.238  tons.     A7is. 

To  fold  the  number  of  tons  hi  long  square  stacks. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  length  in  yards  by  the  width  in 
yards,  and  that  by  half  the  altitude  in  yards,  and  divide  the 
product  by  5 ;  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  tons. 

Example. — How  many  tons  of  hay  in  a  square  stack  10 
yards  long,  5  wide,  and  9  high  ? 

Solution. — 10  x  5  x  4^=225-^-5=45  tons.     Ans. 


54 


MEASUREMENT    OF    HAY. 


To  find  the  number  of  tons  of  hay  when  taken  out  of 
mows  or  old  sta<iks. 

KuLE. — Multiply  the  length  of  the  load  in  yards  by  the 
width  in  yards,  and  that  by  the  height  in  yards,  and  divide 
the  product  by  8  ;  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  tons. 

Example. — How  many  tons  of  hay  taken  from  an  old 
stack,  in  a  load  6  yards  long  by  3  wide  and  3  high  ? 

Solution. — 6  x3x3==54-^8=6|  tons.     Ans. 

These  estimates  are  for  medium  sized  mows  or  stacks. 
If  the  hay  is  piled  to  a  great  height,  as  it  often  is  where 
horse  hay-forks  are  used,  the  row  will  be  much  heavier 
per  cubic  yard. 

Table,  showing  the  price  per  cwt.  of  hofy^  at  given  prices 

'per  ton. 


1 
5 

1 
'a 

(3 

1 

13 

1 

,5 

1 

1 

1 

1 

i 

r4 

1 

a 
o 

1 

c/a. 

cts 

w 

CO 

$rts 

t^ 

00 

o 

I— t 

$ 

$rts 

$.^. 

$cts 

$  cts 

$cr 

$  cts 

$  cts 

4 

10 

20 

40 

6i» 

80 

1.00 

1.20 

1.40 

l.r.o 

1.8» 

2. CO 

2.20 

5 

12 

25 

60 

75 

l.Olt 

1.25 

1.50 

1.75 

2.0O 

2.26 

2  50 

2.75 

6 

15 

30 

60 

90 

1.20 

1.50 

1.80 

2.10 

2.40 

2.70 

3.00 

3.30 

7 

17 

35 

7(» 

1.05 

1.40 

1.75 

2.10 

2.45 

2.80 

3.15 

3.50 

3.85 

8 

20 

40 

80 

1.20 

1.60 

2.00 

2.4<' 

2.^0 

3.20 

3.60 

4.00 

4.40 

9 

22 

45 

90 

1.35 

1.8<» 

2.25 

2.70 

3.15 

3.60 

4.05 

4.50 

4.95 

10 

25 

60 

1.00 

1.50 

2.00 

2.60 

3.00 

3.50 

4.00 

4.50 

5.00 

5.50 

11 

27 

55 

1.10 

1.65 

2.20 

2.75 

3.30 

3.85 

4.40 

4  95 

6.60 

6.00 

12 

30 

60 

1.20 

1.80 

2.40 

3.0(t 

3.60 

4.20 

4. 80 

5.40 

6.00 

6.60 

13 

32 

6) 

1  30 

1.95 

2.60 

3.25 

3.9(» 

4.55 

5.20 

6.86 

6.50 

7.16 

H 

35 

70 

1.40 

2.10 

2.80 

3.50 

4.10 

4.90 

6.60 

6.. 30 

7.(0 

7.70 

16 

87 

75 

1.60 

2.25 

3.00 

3.75 

4.50 

5.26 

6.00 

6.76 

7.50 

8.26 

MEASUREMENT   OF    HAY. 


55 


Table  continued. 


i 

t 

-i 

-i 

na 

i, 

i 

i 

i. 

-6 

u 

T3 

'd 

rrt 

u 

73 

TS 

73 

•v 

A 

% 

g 

0 

§ 

g 

§ 

g 

1 

8 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

:^ 

(M 

CO 

-^ 

U) 

iO 

b- 

CO 

o 

o 

Ph 

T-\ 

i-« 

r-i 

r-t 

©< 

$ 

%  cts 

$cts 

$Ct8 

$  cts 

%cts 

$  Cts 

$  Cts 

$cts 

$  ets 

4 

2.40 

2.60 

2.80 

3.00 

3.20 

3.40 

3.60 

3.80 

4.00 

5 

3.00 

3.25 

3.60 

3.75 

4.00 

4.25 

4.50 

4.75 

5.00 

6 

3.60 

3  90 

4.20 

4.50 

4.80 

6.10 

5.40 

5.70 

6.00 

7 

4.20 

4.55 

4  90 

5.25 

5.60 

5.95 

6.30 

6.65 

7.00 

8 

4.80 

5.20 

5.60 

6.00 

6.40 

6.80 

7.20 

7.60 

8.00 

9 

5.40 

5.85 

6.30 

6.75 

7.20 

7.65 

8.10 

8.55 

9.00 

10 

6.00 

6.50 

7.00 

7.50 

8.00 

8.50 

9.00 

9.50 

10.00 

11 

6.50 

7.15 

7.70 

8.25 

8.80 

9.35 

9.90 

10.45 

11.00 

12 

7.20 

7.80 

8.40 

9.00 

9.60 

10.20 

10.80 

11.40 

12.00 

13 

7.80 

8.45 

9.10 

9.75 

10.40 

11. 05 

11.70 

12.35 

13.00 

14 

8.40 

9.10 

9.80 

10.50 

11.20 

11.90 

12.60 

13.80 

14.00 

15 

9.00 

9.75 

lO.fiO 

11.25 

12.  rO 

12.75 

13.50 

14.25 

15.00 

An  easy  mode  of  ascertaining  the  value  of  a  given  number 
of  lbs.  of  hay ^  at  a  given  price  j>er  ton  of  2000  lbs. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  number  of  pounds  of  hay  (coal, 
or  anything  else  which  is  bought  and  sold  by  the  ton)  by 
one  half  the  price  per  ton,  pointing  off  three  figures  from 
the  right  hand  ;  the  remaining  figures  will  be  the  price  of 
the  hay  (or  any  article  by  the  ton). 

Example. — What  will  be  the  cost  of  658  lbs.  of  hay,  at 
$7.50  per  ton  ? 

Solution.— $7.50  divided  by  2  equals  $3.75,  by  which 

multiply  the  number  of  pounds,  thus : 

658 
$3.75 


3290 
4606 
1974 


$2.4611750.     Ans. 


56 


MEASUREMENT   OF    HAY 


Note. — The  principle  in  this  rule  is  the  same  as  in 
interest— dividing  the  price  by  two  gives  us  the  price  of 
half  a  ton,  or  1000  lbs. ;  and  pointing  off  three  figures  to 
the  right  is  dividing  by  1000. 

A  truss  of  hay,  new,  is  60  lbs. ;  old,  56  lbs. ;  straw,  40  lbs. 

A  load  of  hay  is  36  trusses. 

A  hale  of  hay  is  300  lbs. 


TO  MEASURE^  CORX  ON  THE  COR  IN  ORIRS. 


When  the  crib  is  equilateral. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  length  in  inches  by  the  breadth  in 
inches,  and  that  again  by  the  height  in  inches,  and  divide 
the  product  by  2748  (the  number  of  cubic  inches  in  a 
heaped  bushel),  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of 
heaped  bushels  of  ears.  Take  two-thirds  of  the  quotient 
for  the  number  of  bushels  of  shelled  corn. 

Example. — Required  the  number  of  bushels  of  shelled 
corn  contained  in  a  crib  of  ears,  15  feet  long  by  5  feet 
wide  and  10  feet  high  ? 

Solution. — 180    in.,   length,    x60  in.,  width,  xl20  in., 


58  CORN    IN    CRIBS. 

heiglit,=1296000-^2748=471.6  heaped  bushels,  f  of  which 
is  314.6  bushels  shelled.     Ans. 

Note. — The  above  rule  assumes  that  three  heaping  half 
bushels  of  ears  make  one  struck  bushel  of  shelled  corn. 
This  proportion  has  been  adopted  upon  the  authority  of 
the  major  part  of  our  best  agricultural  journals.  Never- 
theless, some  journals  claim  that  two  heaping  bushels  of 
ears  to  one  of  shelled  corn  is  a  more  correct  proportion, 
and  it  is  the  custom  in  many  parts  of  the  country  to  buy 
and  sell  at  that  rate.  Of  course,  much  will  depend  upon 
the  kind  of  corn,  the  shape  of  the  ear,  the  size  of  the  cob, 
&c.  Some  samples  are  to  be  found,  three  heaping  half 
bushels  of  which  will  even  overrun  one  bushel  shelled ; 
while  others  again  are  to  be  found,  two  bushels  of  which 
will  fall  short  of  one  bushel  shelled.  Every  farmer  must 
judge  for  himself,  from  the  sample  on  hand,  whether  to 
allow  one  and  a  half  or  two  bushels  ears  to  one  of  shelled 
corn.  In  either  case,  it  is  only  an  approximate  measurement, 
but  sufficient  for  all  ordinary  purposes  of  estimation.  The 
only  true  way  of  measuring  all  such  products  is  by  weight. 

When  the  crib  is  fiared  at  the  sides. 

Rule. — Multiply  half  the  sum  of  the  top  and  bottom 
widths  in  inches  by  the  perpendicular  height  in  inches, 
and  that  again  by  the  length  in  inches,  and  divide  the  pro- 
duct by  2748,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of 
heaped  bushels  of  ears.  Take  two-thirds  of  the  quotient 
for  the  number  of  bushels  of  shelled  corn. 


COKN   IN    CRIBS.  59 

Example. — Required,  the  number  of  bushels  of  shelled 
corn  contained  in  a  crib  of  ears  4  feet  wide  at  the  bottom, 
8  feet  at  the  top,  10  feet  in  perpendicular  height,  and  15 
feet  long  ? 

Solution. — iS  inches,  bottom  width,  -f  96  inches,  top 
width,  =  144-T-2=:72xl20  inches  perpendicular  height,  x 
180  inches  length,=1555200-^2748=565.9  bus.  ears,  |  of 
which  is  377.28  bus.  shelled  corn.     Ans. 

Note. — A  barrel  of  corn  is  5  bushels  shelled.  By  this 
latter  measure  crops  are  estimated,  and  corn  bought  and 
sold  throughout  most  of  the  Southern  and  Western  States. 
At  New  Orleans  a  barrel  of  corn  is  a  flour-barrel  full  of 
ears.  In  some  parts  of  the  West,  it  is  common  to  count 
100  ears  to  the  busheL 


MEASUREMENT  OF  GRAIN  IN  GRANARIES. 


To  find  the  nmnher  of  bushels  of  grain  in  a  gi^anary. 

KuLE. — Multiply  the  length  in  inches  by  the  breadth  in 
inches,  and  that  again  by  the  depth  in  inches,  and  divide 
the  product  by  2150  (the  number  of  cubic  inches  in  a 
bushel),  and  for  heaped  bushels  by  2748,  and  the  quotient 
will  be  the  answer. 

Example. — Given  a  granary  9  feet  long  by  4  wide  and  6 
deep.     How  many  bushels  will  it  contain  ? 

Solution. — 108  inches  length,  x  48  inches  width,  x  72 
in.  depth,=373248-f-2150=  173.65  bus.     An.^. 


MEASUKEMENT  OF  TIMBER. 


The  unit  of  board  measure  is  a  superficial  foot  1  inch  thick. 

Besides  inch-boards,  plank  and  scantling  are  usually 
bought  and  sold  by  board  measure. 

Round,  sawed,  or  hewn  timber  is  bought  and  sold  by 
the  cubic  foot. 

Pine  and  spruce  spars,  from  10  to  4|-  inches  in  diameter 
inclusive,  are  measured  by  taking  the  diameter,  clear  of 
bark,  at  one-third  of  their  length  from  the  large  end. 

Spars  are  usually  purchased  by  the  inch  diameter;  all 
under  4  inches  are  considered  foles. 


62 


BOARD   MEASURE. 


Spnice  spars  of  7  inches  and  less,  should  have  5  feet  in 
length  for  every  inch  in  diameter. 

WOOD  MEASURE. 

To  ascertain  the  contents  or  nuraber  of  cords  in  a  given 
pile  of  wood. 

EuLE. — Multiply  the  length  by  the  width,  and  that  pro- 
duct by  the  height,  which  will  give  you  the  number  of 
cubic  feet.  Divide  that  product  by  128,  and  the  quotient 
will  be  the  number  of  cords. 

A  pile  of  wood  4  feet  wide,  and  4  feet  high,  and  8  feet 

long,  contains  1  cord ;  and  a  cord  foot  is  1  foot  in  length  of 

such  a  pile,  thus  : 

^^  8  FT  LONG 


BOARD  MEASURE. 

To  ascertain  the  cmitents  (board  ^neasnre)  of  hoards, 
scantling,  and planTc. 

liuLE. — ^Multiply  the  breadth  in  inches  by  the  thickness 
in  inches,  and  that  by  the  length  in  feet,  and  divide  the 
product  by  12,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  contents. 


BOARD    MEASURE. 


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64 


ROUND    TIMBER. 


Expj.ANATiON. — First  find  the  widtli  in  inches  in  the  left 
hand  column,  and  tlie  length  in  feet  at  the  heads  of  the 
other  columns ;  then  trace  tlie  two  until  they  meet,  and  the 
figures  so  found  will  express  the  contents  in  feet  and  inches. 

ROUND  TIMBER. 


Round  timber  when  squared  is  estimated  to  lose  one- 
fifth  ;  hence  a  ton  of  round  timber  is  said  to  contain  only 
40  cubic  feet. 

Sawed  lumber,  as  joists,  plank,  and  scantlings,  are  now 
generally  bought  and  sold  by  hoard  measure.  The  dimen- 
sions of  a  foot  of  board  measure  is  1  foot  long,  1  ft.  wide, 
and  1  inch  thick. 


SQUARE   TIMBER.  65 

To  measure  round  timber. 

EuLE. — Take  the  girth  in  inches  at  both  the  large  and 
small  ends,  add  them,  and  divide  their  smn  by  two  for  the 
mean  girth  ;  then  multiply  the  length  in  feet  by  the  square 
of  one-fourth  of  the  mean  girth  in  inches,  divide  the  product 
by  144,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  contents  in  cubic 
feet. 

Example. — What  are  the  cubic  contents  of  a  round  log 
12  feet  long,  54  inches  girth  at  the  large  end,  and  34  at 
the  small  end  ] 

Solution. — 54  4-34= 88-^  2=44  inches,  mean  girth. 

Then  12  length  x  121  inches  (the  square  of  \  mean 
girth)  =1452-7- 144=  10 J^  cubic  feet.     Atis. 


SQUARE  TIMBER. 

To  measure  square  timber. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  breadth  in  inches  by  the  depth  in 
inches,  and  that  by  the  length  in  feet,  and  divide  the  pro- 
duct by  144,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  contents  in  cubic 
feet. 

Example. — What  is  the  cubic  contents  of  a  square  log 
12  feet  long  by  20  inches  broad  and  18  deep  ? 

Solution.  —  20  x  18  =  360  x  12  =  4320  -^  144  =  30  cubic 
feet.     Ans. 


(ye 


PLANK    MEASURE. 


PLANK  MEASURE. 

Table,  showi/ng  the  contents  {hoard  raeasxire)  of  planks  of 
various  dimensions. 


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PLANK    MEASURE.                                                  67 

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moo(M;oO'5f<ooo^oo-*''»(M^oOTt<oo'>)i:00'^oo<MaroiCOt^i— to 

oz^qlz 

Crj0»0iOOO-H^C^rMc<jc0I0e0-*'<*»0»0«fl'»^'^t*l~00Q0Q00iQ0 

6lM^5 

COCSCO«30CCt-0'*00-H0005<l«OC5C<ltO=:COr-0-*t^'-t<OC»7MlO 

8lM!2 

O-*  X;— «  -P    /j-^  mCOi— IOQO-^iOQOt— l»000(M»OCOC<l  »OOSC^>OOS(MiO 

zi^q!z 

t-CC000000O50505O=:O^'-H-<C<I(MC<IC0MM'^'*-^i2«0»0O^tC 

9i^q!z 

»^t^l:^Q000Q0cnO0S0SOOO^^'-^(MCM'M(MC0MC0'^'*'*O|0«C 

si^qfz 

CXJOrOOCi-M-^t^OrO^OO-— i-*'t^OC^«O00C0i0t^Ot0^05rH'«S<«0 

t-i^qig 

«0C;Ot-t-l-t-Q0000000SSS5OOOO^-^rH  —  C-lCsJ!M(MMCOCO 

si^q!z 

OO^COOCO-^0:)OXOCOi03DO'MOr^O'MOr-0<MOt-05C^'*t- 

^Aqfg 

-f:^cr.  —  M»oaCOG<l^t^05— 'CO-JSCOO^iiOr^O^J^OCOr-ioCiOt- 
OOiO^cO   t0'Ot-t^t-I>.t-C00000G00S05CS0SajOOOOrH^^t-H 

Ti^qfz 

'"tiiOOtOOOOCO^COb-t-t-t-.t^OOOOCOOOQOasOOSOSOOOOO 

oiMf-?; 

^  Tfi  '^^  .a  lO  o  ic  lO  -o  -^  --^  •-::  ^  --c  t^  t^  t-  1—  •-  00  00  00  X  x-  ST.  :^  05  a:  OS 

82  ^q  z 

.— (   ^  —  —  .^r—  — I—I  —  -H,— (I— 1— (,-^^^,-(— .,— tr-l   55   3>»C<|!M'MC<JCO!M'M(M 

iz^^z 

0^--C<lCvicOr022TiHiOlOOy3r^f-000000050S    OO—  ^'^'M<MM 

oz^q^ 

wO— .^COrJCCMMTtl-fiOO'OtS^Ct-t^OOQOr-.  OiOSOO'-H^'MCM 

93  ^qs 

O'^aO'Mt^'— i»005icr^-^coc;rt<00>*«>'— ^o^?ct^•^1:oo■*ooco^- 

tg^qz 

8ZMS 

-M-o-i^^t^  —  .r:oseocoO'*oocv3?oa:cOt^t-iiOO>^<co-^oo'M^Oi 

Oi3»OC;OrHrH>— l>J01COJOC''5-<*-fTt<iO»0-0-J^COb-.t-0000000»05  0; 

zzMz 

oo'M.co5-o:oc'^^---OQO-M?oa5^^r-o-?'00•-'•03v>J»ocol--o 

0005CS0iO£-^  —  ^C<IC<J'MMM:CTt*^'OiO«O-~0«Oy3l:-t|^0000002 

iz^qs 

■rti  1^ TT   JU  — '  '-0    /-  ^1  T.    -.    ;•!  -J^  3S  lO  CO  O  ?0  r-  O  -*  t^  O  ■*  00  — t  O  QO  <M 

oz^qz 

Or^t-0.-'-r^O?^i-Orot-OCOl^Oroi-0'roi^O:Or-0--^t-OM 
oocoa)=^^r>ooOOr-.-<-^7M'^^'^^c>:l-^^o-=f<-*T^.i0.fT.<TCOjo«clJ.|- 

^otoi:-QOC50,-i'Mrt'«!j4iO--oh-oor5  =  --(MrO'«i*o*-Oh-oooiO'--iM 

68                                                   PLANK   MEASURE. 

Table  continued. 

C7  An  C        00"<!j<0S»0.-lt^C<J00'*O»flTHt^CC00rtlOC0'-Ht^C0C»'*OS0iMt^C005 

1 

1 
i 

zg^qs 

COCO-«*i'*0«'X)l:-t^OOOOO>C500r-l(MCMCOCO'<tl-*iOiO!0   ?Ol^000C 
'  — t  — 1  -^  — t  •—  — 1  — 1  —  ^  — 1  — .  ^--4  :M  '>i  C<1  -M  -M  -^1   -  r  -M  oa  -.1   -^1  ->!   >ci  -VI  'M 

is^qs 

»  .— 1  O   .-M  t^  <M  I—  iO  >^  CO  00  "^  O^  '^  OS  -Tjl  o  »0  w  'O  "<  ^  r-(  l^  :^^  l^  cvj  ao  -^ 
Cv)CCC0Ttl'^»0t0O^|>.t-00000i05O'^.-H:^<MC0C0'*^O<0<X)?0t- 

r- «  —  — 1  —  1— 1.^,— 1,— 1— <i— i-^i-HrHi— lr-ll^Jc^^<^^{^J'^^(^^(^^-»^(^^CM(^^'^JCsl-^J 

OZ^qg 

CM(MC0C0Tti'*i0OO?£)l:^l>.00000105OO,-l'-HrMCMC0C0-<J<'*llCi0?^ 

eiAqs 

"<!*<OSCCCO:O00<Mt-r-t^>— iCOO'i.   OiOC5-«*<Cni-«JiOOCOOOCOt—  (Ml—  OliC 
i-lTH(MC<ICCCO'!Tl'^iOiCi<X)'X>l--t-COOOCX305CiOOT-l,-l'M(MCOCOTtlrt* 

r-i,—(r-<i— II— ii—ii-^-Hr-ii— (.—11-4.— 1-^1— ll—l1—lr-l1-Hcq(^4(^^(^^c^^^^J<^^(^^(^^c<^ 

81  ^qg 

OOCvit-r-lOOOCl-^OSCOt-CMCOT-"»00'*CSCOODC<>t-f-HCOOiOC5'^ 
OrH-.(>>(MCOCOCOT^'>3'OOOCr)£-t^OOOOOOC5asOO.-l.-l(MCMCvirO 
,-H_|,_l^rf,^,—(_(_(,-t,^.— I,—!.— l.—l—^.—.r-(,— (,—(.— |r-('>JC<lC<l(M'>l(M    (N'M 

11  ^q  g 

Cvi50Oi00iC0t-C<l^0O'^0iC0I>-r-i;0O^C»C0t-rHOO'*  O00vj|>.— . 
OO.-lr-l-^(M(MC0C0'«;*<'*'^t0»0«3«2t:-t-t^00000S0SOOOrHr-.^ 

91^8 

?OC:S-q'00'M500TtlCO(MiOO'*00(M';00-^00<MtOO'^00(M«DO"^00 
05000i-l.-l<MC<lC<lCOCO'*'*'*^00«OOI:-t-OOOOCX)C50S=>Oir 

91  ^qg 

OOSOiOOOrHi— ICqC<l(MCOCOCO   ■<*<-<3^if5^O«0t:3CDt-»t^00X'G0CiC5 

H^qg 

-*r-^'*00^«000(M«001^0CSCO?OOCOt-0'<*<I>.r-('*00.-iiOXr-l 
0000O50505OOO'— •.— irHC<I<M(MCi5C0-^"^'^>O»^«O<iOCC>--Oxr-|>.l>.G0 

gi^qg 

00.-l^OO^'*OOr-tTti|:-,-(Tt(t-OCOt-OCOCOOOOOC5SvjCOC5(MiOO» 
I»OOG00005050>OOOt— li— lr-IC<IC<l<MCOCOCO-«*'*-<+"-<^iO»0«Oil^«0«0 

zT^qg 

Tv40vJO-^':J'l-OCOCOOSCvJ»OOOrH-*I>.OCOCOOSCMlOOO^'<*<r-OCO«5 
t-l:^t-0000000500iO>OOOi-li-li-l(M(N(M<MCOCOCO^'*TtiOiOiO 

SS^qfZ 

O^D-^.t-coosO'^t-C<^oo^O^|>^^-cco40l-l^|^^QOM'0«<^3ooco 

''J^'tltOlO'OCOb-OOOOOSOiOrHr-KMC^ICOCO-rtHiOiOCOCOIr-OOCOOSOSO 

,_i_.,^_,,_Hr-^-j^Hi— ir-i— «(^^(^q(^a(^^'^J(^^(^^(^l<^1l^J|^^(^^c<l'^Jc<^(^J(^^co 

z^^q^g 

»^-   —  :CiC>-J00C0Cl«0O'^rHt>.C0C0'*O>Oi— It—  <M00C0Ci»OO«i3<M0SC0 

cO'*-rjHioo«r>cot— ooooosoo^— <<>ic<icocO'<**-*»o»oeot-i— 0000C5 

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dz^<ih 

OiO.— 'tOCMI—COOOCOOi-^OiOO*©.— II>.C<100COOO-*C5'^0«0'— i«b5M 

coeo-<*<'*iO>o  «o;ot-t-oooic:iOO'-<T-i<Mc<«coco-*'^iO«ocot-t-oc 

yz^qh 

»OOOT-ICO.-l«Or-(t-Cvlt-C<lt-COOOCOC»-<i40>'*OS'*000>OOy50 
(MCOCO'*-.!j<lO»0«OCOt^l>.00000>OiOOrHi— l(M(MCO'r(4'^iO«^'X>:St— 

^^^-^^^^^^_Hr-(f^^,-lrH(MC<lC<l(M(M<MC<IC<l(M'NI(M-M^l(M 

t6^qh , 

OOOOOiOO»0000«00«00»OOmO'00»00«00«J::000 
':~J(MC0C0'<Ti"*iO«O?O«Dt>.t—  00C0050»OO'-<i— lC<l(MCOCO'*'^OiO— : 
— '— "^Ht-I.— I^H— H.— Ir-I— <,— It— li— It— lrH-^(>JC<l(NCflirg(MC<I(MC<l(M'M'M'M 

g^^q^z  i 

^2   OOCS'^C75^Q0C000CC003v)t-(NIt-C<ICO^«3r-l«0OOO»0O'*CD 
— t5^(M(MCOOO'*'*»OiO':D«5t-t-0000050SOOi-t-'<MS<ICOPO-.^'*^ 
,— It— I,—!,— (.— It— 1.— t.— It— It— IrH,— l-^T— It— It— It— lr-ICMi:NI(MC<l(M(MlMC<l(M<M'>^ 

zz^<\h  1 

OOCi'^iOOCOr—  (Mt-1— l«OOtOO'^OSCOOOC<lt—  iMOiT— t0  0»00>-*ac 
T-l.-lT-((M<r<IC0C0'*^»O»O«0«Ot-t-b-0000a»05OO— li-<<M<N5^COCO 
-^— 1— It— It— <— *-^»^.— !■— I'-I^Ht— It— It— I^Hf^^^-H,— l(M(M'M'>CIC<IC^C<l'MC<l 

iz^qfs 

U0=^.  -*iOO'MI--i-l=00-*0»COl>.(MeO^»OCJ5^00(Mt-^«DOmOSCOI- 
OO^T-H  (N(MC0C0'^T^"<:H»0i0=Oy5t-t>.t-00000SC»OO'-l'^'-'<MC<I 
— ->— I,—!.— It— I^H^^.— I.— •»-<^H'-'i— 1.— Ii-^i— •.— Ii— 1— "rHi— lr-IC^SOIM30(M(M(M 

o^^qf z 

Gi^<\h  1 

^^2§5S3SSS2S25SS§§S§SS22i22ii 

81AtS  ' 

§^^22iSS§SSSS§22isSS§§SSS2!SS§ 

ilM^o    , 

ooooojC5000-H^r^cq^c^coeocO'*'^'*«o«oo«22'^l;:'~*22 

9i^q!2  j 

Ocot-ocot-ocot-ocot-ocot-ocot-ocot-ocot-ocot-oco 

OOOOOOOSO»05000--'-<-^<>t=^C^rOCOCC-*'>*l'*uO«0««=OCO<Dt-b- 

ei^qh 

iQ,jO„^-j,r,   _^^i>_OC0;oasC0i205'Nl»0!X)i— t-*t—  O-^t—  OCOiOOSCvl 

^i^qh 

ocooci^oi-OMsooic^r-x)-'^t-ocN'£5oo  —  ;5;i-oc222!v? 

GiMh 

1030OC0C005— '-^^C  OS-d  .Ot— OC0O00rH'*?00?C<li0t-OC0»nQ0'-H 

toot-t-t-t-oooooooooso05  0000-'-jT^;^52  2  22!22  2  —  ;^ 

•Suox  1 

1  ^a  T    ' 

^C>3(?5i?1Cl(?aCOCOMCCCOOOCOCOOOCO'>:4H'*'<*<'*'*'*'*'#^Tt<0»OiO 

I'LANK    MEASURE. 


69 


Table  continued. 


91  ^q^ 

1    OOCOOS-^OSOOlOi— (CO.— it^C<lt>.COQOCiOOS'>!t<05»00»Of— l«Oi-Ht>.(M00 

ei^qt 

1    SvJCMCOCOTTTT    0.0'-OOl-l-OOGO«OiOOrH^CM<?:,rOCr^^-?§Jo§ 

1—  — -—  —  —  r-i-H  —  —  »-i— 1.— 1^^(>4-^  —  '^J•^J^>l'^.^-^J(^^-^^c<^'^^'>^c^J|^3'>^ 

os^qts 
6c^qfs 

^r-c<i:OTi^ocot-ooooOTOr-i(McoT}4iooo;::Sc50-SSM^^ 
1  (Nc<i(?q(M(>4C^!>ic<ic^>irjcocoeo:ocococoa:coco?o^Tj<^^';jS-^^ 

c^s<js<irvic<icg(M(>icqs^oj(rqcococoroio^=o^co?^?o?:^^^5^ 

82^qfc 

<;0'<*G<IOOSt^iOCOrHC500eO^(MOOOl—  >OrO— 'Osl^^^-^-TMOOOWS   -p 
OiO--IC^3>^CO'5'iOCOCOI>.OOCSOi-l.-H!MCO-«*<»0   OCCit^OOOiO=.-iCs> 

r-l'^l<M'Mrl(^^(^^(^^(^^(^^!^^s^^(^^^:lCOcoco^Ococooo^ocOMco■*'*-^i^■^ 

iz^^kz 

05t^'OCOC;QOiOT}1,-.«OQO«DeO.-^05t-»OCOi— i05:CTt<C<IC:CO«r-^C<10i 
COOiOr-iC<lC^CO^iOCO«t-Q005050-^(MCOCO-*OCOI^t^000500 
—  .— '(MCvI'M'M'MC<IXC<l'rJiKI(M»S<ICOCOCCCO--'*.   COCOCOIOMCOCO^^ 

9Z^qf8 

Q00S05O— lC<l'>lC0-^«0OCOt^Q0CX,05Or-^,-,C0r^'*^i0-.0lr-t-.000i 

^^^cvi(>as<ic<io<>c^'^J^c<«c^4C<l>43<ioocOi.-oco.-ococococoeo?7Mco 

y^Aqfs 

l:^ooo5CsO.-Hr^C•^^0■^TJ1lOO:o^■-.coc»oso,-l^<^c^^^o^OlOOl^^^- 
^^^-Hra(^^(^^5^^(^^(^^CM-^J7^^'>J:^^>^<^l3>^cocOco«MIO:o^ocococo 

tz^qfs 

OOifSC^OS^OCOOt^--^.— 'OClO:^■^OiCO^OOl--■^.— lOOioCMOS-^iCOdt^-rti 
C0t>:0000CSOT-I^C^CCC0-*O«^«0t-Q000OTOo2?3g^2^fr^ 

^^^^rH(^^(^^(^^(^l(^^(^^<^^(^^(^^(^^(^^(^^(^^(^^coo^coeococo^MMM 

sz^qfs 

coot-G030cftOO  —  (M<NcO'*-5:ocoSt-oooooioo--c^(rqco^^ 

,_(^^^^^5<,(^5^5sj5<ic^C<IC<lC<IC<l(N!M<M(M(MCO00eOeOCOCOCCCO 

62^qfs 

^^t^cOOcO(M3:OC<|OOia^l>-'*01:^M05CO-MC-.  0<MQO'*— '1^'^ 
Ooy^i^Gococnoso-^^'MCOcO'^icioeocct'COooooo^cNiNCO 

.— i-H.— 1,— (n-4.— t,-<rHC<iraiM(MCM5<IC<IC^(M(MC<IC<l'Mi>IG<lCOCOCOCOeOCO 

TS^qfg 

t-coc:iicc<ic)0'^ococ<iQo-<*'.--it-eosr:io--i:^coa5u':)--t^'*0';oc<|00 
'*i-':o-ot-t--QOo»e3500^c<ic^cocO'*.r'»o'-ocor--coQccsr;o.-''-- 

OZ^qfS 

S2^^52f=;'^:::J'::r''^aO'*ooc<ji:-ccCJi»0'-i^'>'00'<*0--oc<|coco 
^'-^'-^^— ''-"— '^--^-Hc<ic<)c<ic<ic^cqi><c<icqc<ic<ie<i«Nc<iiyic<i<Nco 

ei^q^s 

25S5'*'=>-':)  —  t^<Mt-.COQOT*<OiO'^CO<MI:^COCX)'<*<0>iOO'X)'-Ht-C<100 

f0ro-«*oi0;oeor^i>.cooo3500»— r-i'>s'MCOco-*'*'r'cocob-.t^OOQO 

si^qfs 

•-=-:;^'Mt^^t^COOOCOOO':t>OS-«^Ci»rjOiOO--C  —  COS<Jt^COI^!MQOCO 

iiMfs 

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.—  ■^^'^Jco?0'i!t<-^0<otcv^•^-^^oooooiOsoo— '1— i'MC<ico^5'^-^«:5»C 

9lM^S 

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08  ^q  8 

Ot^..C'MOl:-iCC<IOr-in>»C:l>.'r5(MO»^»0'NlOt^»OCOOt-.r2-NI   = 

QOC0050'—  —  C^ICOrti-^OCOt^h-OOCiOOi— iC<lCO«-t<i';i3t:Ot^OOOi 
-M.-ir-i(MCqcqcO(MiMS<«C<«<M3^(M'M<M00COCOCOCOrOCOCOCOrr.  WJMCO^ 

62  ^q  8 

^^aGOJOOt^O'Mai--OTf^oc»o^ot-'*i<Mc:5:^:o—  jCir;5M:=.t^ 
r-.ooooc50— '-^'Niroio^vococor^oocsoio  —  r-«(^'^^o-^■^lO<c^-r— 
,— 1,— irH^H  (JJ-M  MC<lrJC<JC<J(M(MC<lCaC<I<MiMCOCOCO?CCOCOCOCO?000CC 

82  ^q  8 

°Oj05^£:3ococ;t^-rt.— .ooif5c>5C5-~OJOOw^i-'oou3c<ia>:ocooi^'* 

cOt-GCQOCi£;— '  —  C<lCOCO-^OiOCCt-C0000500--'>J'>JCOT><«^u^«0 

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jL3^q8 

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— <,-Hi— 1,— lr-(i— IC<l!MC<IOJ(>J(M<M01'M(M'MC0'>4(MS>qC0C0C0C0C0C0CCC0 

93  ^q  8 

9ZMS 

OiOCOCOt-QOJOOSO^— '^-MCOS^-tHOiCCOCOt^OOQCOiOO— <  —  Csl 

^2^q8 

^'5^'^•^^S^'^=^'*'®^'^'<»'*'-'^<^<»'*•==c>'^■«oo-*oco(^^ 

•^lOiCCOCOb-OOCOCSOiOr- ii— i(MC<lCO-rH'^iOOOh-t^OOOOOiOO  — 

{NCM(N.<M-4<MMrOr5COM?OCO^?^COTH^^5^^:?!5:-^^0«50 

TO  LOGS    REDUCED   TO    INCH-BOARD    MEASURE. 

Table  eontimied. 


bOtOtCtOtOtOtOtOlNOtCbOtCtObCtOfcOhO 


COC»00--J--lC5050<rfi-rfa.C003t>3lx:^t-'»--OCC>!:C'aC)OO^I-JC^wTO«rfi.rf».tO    I    A   y>ir  1 7 
(*i»  «D  W  00tCa>>-'0<tPrfi>-00lO'^e^O<O>f>-000J^1l-'asOt;^tOC0^tCJ:    I    ^  "J    ^ ' 


cccocoto^ol^^l^o^^^o^o^^abo^^5bC)^ol^D»^SI^D^^l--•»-•^--'^--'h-'^-*►-'l--^»--^h-»  i 

|s3C5O*».00lOO5O  rf^  00  to  OS  O  >f^OOtOCT>04^00t>SCaOtf>.ootNao>0  *;s.    I    ^  »-'/   -^o 


t^r-COCO00^CN5bCitOtNDtOtOtOtOI>5t>0t>3tOl>0lN3N0t--i»-«l-'»--i|--<t--'l-'t-*| 

tsotO"—  ^-OOCDOO-^-^JOSC5tr>t*»-»f>.WtOtOi— '00«OCDC»~-»~J050iU»    I    J.  "U^  1  Q 


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WWCOCA3WWWCCK)N0batOtOt>DK>fcOK>tCtCtCbOtOtO»->t-i|-J(-i|-i|— I    I 
►*^«r».CjOtOt>Si--OOeOOOOO"^C5C5  0i*>.rf».COfcOrN3>— 'OOC000C0--IC5OS    I 


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4  by  23 


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o  to  I 


4  by  24 


^»  00 


►^  CO 
©  CO 

o  to 


CO  CO  ( 
00  ~^  I 
CO  C"  ■ 


CO  CO  CO  CO 

4a>.  CO  ro  — 
to  CO  en --I 


»;^»(>.k<^4;>.»f^rf^C0COCCCO 
Oi  >N  05  "^"^  * '  '^  ^'^  ^'*'  ^"^^  *^ 

o  toco 


COCOtOfcOtOtOtOlOtOtObOtO 

OOC000-^05tnCJ»>Ji.C0t0l— ' 
oo  O  I— '000^~J00OtOC0Cn-<l 


to  to 

o  o 

QOO 


4  by  25 


4;>.»f^rf^COCOCCCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOtOtOtOI>StObOtOtOtOtOtO   I 
tOt-'OCOCOOO--40SCrtkUOOt>3tOH-OC000^1'0»OSO»rf!>^COtOI-'0    I    AYixr  9fi 

o^o^-^cDo>-'Cot^Crt^JQocot-'tocoCrtos•<loo^-'C04».o^~^Qo  I  ^"y^" 


Explanation. — Find  the  length  in  feet  in  the  left  hand 
colnnm,  and  the  width  and  thickness  in  inches  at  the  heads 
of  the  other  columns,  and  trace  the  two  until  they  meet, 
and  the  figures  so  found  will  express  the  contents  in  feet, 
board  measure.  For  a  less  length  than  any  provided  in 
the  table,  take  the  J,  \^  J,  &c.,  of  the  lengths  given.  Thus 
for  6  feet  take  \  of  24,  &c. 


LOGS  REDUCED  TO  INCH-BOAED  MEASURE. 


Table,  showing  the  nuinber  of  feet  (bom'd  raeasure)    of 

inch-hoards  contained  in  round  saw  logs  of  various 

dimensions 


LOGS    REDUCED   TO   INCH-BOAED    MEASURE. 


71 


■ 

(M 

CO 

-^ 

o 

t-j 

t-  1  c» 

C5 

o 

,_, 

c^ 

p'j 

'tl   »o  1 

CD    t^ 

00 

Oi 

*> 

<-< 

Csl 

c^ 

CM 

<M 

CM 

CM 

(M 

CM 

CM 

c<» 

1 

g 

a 

B 

S 

a 

g 

g 

B 

g 

a 

a 

a 

i 

g 

g 

a 

a 

g 

ce 

d 

a 

.2 

cc 

eS 

c; 

s 

cS 

cS 

a 

03 

^ 

d 

a 

e3 

c8 

v-^ 

Q 

« 

P 

P 

P 

P 

P 

p 

G 

P 

P 

P 

p 

p 

P 

P 

P 

P 

10 

49 

61 

7 

I    89 

99 

116 

13. 

J   150 

175 

191 

209 

235 

252 

287 

313 

i72 

363 

381 

11 

54 

67 

7 

3  98 

109 

127 

14^ 

■  165 

192 

209 

230 

259 

278 

315 

344 

377 

400 

419 

12 

59 

73 

8i 

5107 

119 

139 

16{ 

)  180 

210 

228 

251 

283 

303 

344 

376 

411 

VcQ 

457 

13 

64 

79 

9: 

ni6 

129 

I5U 

17: 

i  195 

227 

247 

272 

306 

328 

873 

408 

445 

473 

495 

14 

69 

85 

10( 

)125 

139 

162 

18- 

'  210 

245 

266 

292 

330 

353 

401 

439 

479 

509 

533 

15 

74 

91 

lo- 

'134 

149 

173 

20( 

)225 

262 

285 

313 

353 

379 

430 

469 

514 

545 

571 

16 

79 

97 

ll^ 

1142 

159 

185 

2K 

]  240 

280 

304 

334 

377 

404 

459 

500 

548 

582 

609 

17 

811 

03 

12^ 

'151 

168 

196 

22" 

r  255 

297 

323 

355 

400 

429 

478 

531 

582 

618 

647 

18 

88] 

L09 

121 

)  160 

178 

208 

24( 

J  270 

315 

342 

376 

424 

454 

516 

562 

616 

654 

685 

19 

93  1 

L16 

13( 

3  169 

188 

219 

25: 

3  285 

332 

361 

397 

447 

480 

545 

594 

650 

692 

723 

20 

9«] 

L22 

14: 

J 178 

198 

232 

26' 

J  300 

350 

380 

418 

470 

505 

573 

625 

684 

728 

761 

21 

103] 

128 

15( 

)  187 

208 

243 

28( 

)315 

368 

399 

439 

495 

530 

602 

656 

719 

764 

800 

22 

108] 

L34 

15' 

r  196 

218 

255 

29( 

?330 

385 

418 

460 

518 

555 

631 

688 

753 

800 

838 

23 

113] 

L40 

16^ 

1205 

228 

266 

30 

r345 

403 

437 

480 

542 

571 

659 

719 

787 

837 

876 

24 

118] 

L46 

17' 

>214 

238 

278 

32 

0  860 

420 

456 

501 

566 

606 

688 

750 

821 

873 

9U 

25 

123] 

52 

17' 

3  223 

248 

289 

83 

3  375 

438 

475 

522 

589 

631 

717 

781 

856 

910 

952 

o 

,_^ 

CI 

CO 

~^5 

»o 

<s> 

t~ 

00 

OS 

o 

r-i 

CM 

CO 

■*^ 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

"rt* 

■^ 

-^ 

'^ 

1 

n 

a 

g 

g 

i 

g 

g 

d 

a 

g 

a 

a 

g 

g 

a 

e3 

e3 

cS 

s3 

cj 

ro 

ce 

e3 

c8 

e8 

o3 

a 

•^ 

•  fH 

h4 

p 

s 

S 

p 

Q 

P 

P 

P 

P 

P 

P 

P 

'fi 

P 

10 

411 

444 

460 

490 

500 

547 

577 

644 

669 

70(1 

752 

!  795 

840 

872 

u 

451 

448 

506 

539 

550 

602 

634 

708 

734 

770 

82^ 

874 

924 

959 

12 

493 

532 

552 

588 

600 

657 

692 

772 

801 

840 

902 

954 

1007 

1046 

13 

534 

676 

698 

637 

650 

712 

750 

836 

868 

910 

97^ 

1033 

1091 

1135 

14 

575 

622 

644 

686 

700 

766 

807 

901 

934 

980 

1052 

1113 

J 175 

1222 

15 

616 

666 

690 

735 

750 

821 

865 

965 

1001 

1050 

112S 

1192 

1259 

1309 

16 

657 

710 

736 

784 

800 

876 

923 

1029 

1068 

1120 

1204 

1272 

1343 

1396 

17 

698 

755 

782 

832 

850 

931 

980 

1094 

1134 

1190 

127S 

1351 

1427 

1485 

18 

739 

799 

828 

88^ 

.  900 

985 

1038 

1158 

1201 

1260 

1354 

1431 

1611 

1571 

19 

780 

843 

874 

931 

950] 

L040 

1096 

1222 

1268- 

1330 

143C 

1510 

1695 

1658 

20 

821 

888 

920 

98C 

1000] 

L095 

1152 

1287 

1335 

L400 

1505 

1590 

1679 

1745 

21 

863 

932 

966 

102« 

1050] 

L150 

1210 

22 

904 

976 

1012 

mi 

UlOO 

1204 

1268 

23 

945 

1021 

1058 

112' 

'1150 

1259 

1322 

24  98fi 

1065 

1104 

117( 

3  1200 

1314 

1380 

1 

25  1027 

1109 

1150)122^ 

)  12501 

1369 

1438 

i 

1    '    '    i 

Explanation. — Find  the  length  of  the  log  in  feet  in  the 
left  hand  column,  and  its  mean  diameter  in  inches  (found 
by  adding  the  two  end  diameters,  and  dividing  their  sum 
by  two)  at  the  heads  of  the  other  columns,  and  trace  them 


72 


SCANTLING   MEASURE. 


until  tliejmeet,  and  the  figures  so  found  will  express  the  num- 
ber of  feet  board  measure  of  inch-boards  the  log  will  furnish. 

SCANTLING  MEASURE. 

Table,  sJiowincj  the  contents  (board  measure)  of  scantling  of 
various   dimensions. 


Cp    ci- 

1—' 

te 

to 

00  t^          00  rf>-         00  »*>.         00  rf»>         00  ^K         00  rfi-         00  rf».         00  t^         00  tf^         QD  rf^ 

Oirf^*>.<wcobObci-'H-'oo<aD«oooQo^^-»c?5C5iytcxtf».>f^c»ootobOH-'i-'0 

to 

*-< 

w 

Oi05050505Ci05aJOC50>asC5C50i 

bOl— •)— 1|— 'h- 't— •!— '1— •!— 'l-'t— 1)— >|— •)— >i— 'I—I 
OOOOQO^C:iO!:J^^^rf>.W^Ot^^^-00«00000~^Ci05U1rf>i-^*^COI^^fcO^-»0 

t. 

^<X>         it^OO          tt^  CO         rf^  00          rf-.  00         hf>.  00          >f>.  00         >;4>00         rfs.  00          rfi>'  00 

OiHf^WtOf—  C>O«O00^0itnCn4>.Wt>:'H-OO<:000^0sCnC;x4>-C0t0l-'O 

tah*^050oi— '       to»*!^C50ot-'       tcrf^-ciooi— '       bs  >(^  o>  cc  >-'       tctf».o>oot-^ 
O                         o                         o                         o                         o 

to 

en 

0«000-J05Cn4^tOtOl-'0'iSOO-*C5aitf^Wts,H-OCOOO-»C5Crttf».COtOI-' 

tc 

05 

COWCCWCObStCfcONOtCbSbObOI-'t-il-'l-'^-'i-'t-'i-'l-' 
V.t0tCr-O«0000i0x>f>.00lC>— «OOO^C5wT4i>.tOl-'0«000~<Oi*^03tOt-« 

to 

K-OOC5rf^t.5          i—OOCStf^-tO          H-OOCirf^tO           l-'OOOirf^.tC          t—OOOlrf^fcC 
O                                 O                                 C                                 o                                 o 

000-^CSrf».WtOOOOOC^Cnrf».tOr—  O00~^C»rfi-C0t<3OO000Sttt>ffc.fc0h^ 

to 

00 

00(4*.      Q04>.       oorf»-      oot*i.      ootf^r-      CO  t(^       CO  >t^       oorfi.       oohf^      oe»f» 

»^tU.;tkrfk.tOWCOWCOO3C0l>5l>3bCtOt>3tCl— '1— •*-*)— >l— II— 11— I 

to 

aj005C5C5050i           05CiOC5C*CSO»OS 

OOOCiCnWH-OOOOSOiCCH-OOOCrsOiiiOH-OQOOSOiCOh-OOOCJCrxCOl-' 

to 

o 

»4-  00          >fi.  00         (*>.  00          rf>.  00          rf>.  00          »#>.  00          >f^  00          rf».  00         ►fi'-OO         t^i.  00 

SCANTLING    MEASURE. 


73 


Table  continued. 


oSoo^^C^^Wt>3»-'©«0(»^OiCr«rf».CObOH- O«000-^O5CrttfwC0t0l-« 

51 

tn  en  Oi  k)^  h?>  *-  rf'-  *-  *-  CC  W  W  (W  CC  to  tC  t>S  fcO  to  to  ►-  K-  t-'  (-■  ^- 

c;io3H-k«o~^cnt^toooc'Oi(+i.coH-i:D"-iO'CotwOOO~.  rf^-to  —  tc-'^o^wH- 

to  i^  OS  00  I--'       tOrf^OSOOt—          tOtf^OSOOl-'          tOt*>.C500i—          tOrf».O500t-' 

o                      o                      o                      o                      o 

to 

cocototototatototototoi-'t-'H-t->i-'i-'»-*t->i->i-' 

h-'0«0(X~<05Cnrfi.tOI-'CeOQO'<IC5Cnrf^C»tOH-0«0  00-<IOSCrtrf».COfcO(-« 

w  00  to  to  H-'  I->    1       ►-  U- 1—  I--  «o  o  00  c»  ^  •^  05  *os  c;»  'c«  4>>  'rfi«.  to  CO  to  to  I-'  U' 
I-*  I—  o  o 

to 

0\ 

W  CO  CO  to  CC  W  03  to  fcO  to  to  bC  to  to  to  H-  t-*  ^  I-'  (-■  K-"  t-»  I-* 

-viosmcctoi-'Ooo'-JosOTtAJtoi-'Ooo  -aasoitcto*— ooo^05t«ootoi-' 

to 

OS 

OS  to         «0  Oi  CO         <Xi  OS  CO         «0  OJ  CO         «0  OS  CO         «0  O  CO         <£)  OS  CO         «o  o>  to 

j^l^rfi.tOCOt0tO00t0tOtOtOtOtObOtOtOK-(— 't— it-«l— '»— •(— ' 

tctooeo-aosmcotooo-^os^f^coH-'Oo^csrf^toi-'ooo'^Oxtfk.fcoi-' 

Orfi-I^Ott-'CS         ^^-00tO«OCOl-•rf»-t-'Ol          OS(-'-atO00t0«Orf».t-'<>I-ios 
O        t-'                                               O        t-                                                           O        I-- 

to 

•3' 

trt^l*i^rf^»;i>.tf».tfk.tOtOtOCOOOCOtO*OtOtOtObOI-'»-'l-'H->l-'i-i 
O000S0«Wi--O000S<yxC0l-'O000SC«C0r-'O0005C?<C0l-'O000SCnC0l-« 

rf^  00         tf^  00         t»w  00         tf>^  00         'rf».  00         If*.  00  *      Ij!>^  00  "       rf^  00  *       ►f^  00  '      !*».  00 

to 

CO 

C7«C7»0>Cnrf».>t^>*^rf^tfi.COCOCOCCCOtOtOtOtOI>OtOi-'l-'>-i|-«t-' 
OStf^tSOOOCStTltOt-'CO^TCncoi-iOCOCShf'-tCOOOCSCrtCOI-'O^OttOH-' 

to 

to  c«  OS  00  «o  1-'       to  CO  Crt  OS  00  «o  H-       to  to  tn  OS  00  CO  H-i       to  CO  C;^  OS  00  «o  1-' 

ososcncnC;«0<tn)f>>4^»f>^)^tototototobOtotototO)—ii—'t— >)—•)— 1 

t0O000S>f^t0O^tnC0h-«5--J0xC0(-'«O-^CrttoO000Srf^t0O000>rf>^t0 

to 

OSCnrf».COtOt— I         t— 'I— i<O00'<IO5Clffi>.COtO»-»         ►— '»— '^OOO-^OsC^irf^COfcOl-* 

050sos05Cnc™ptc^C;»tf».i*>.rfxrf>.cotocototototototot-'i-»i-'K-' 

00O5h+i->— '«0-<ICnt0O00C;»t0t— '<00Srf».fc0«0"^Cnb0O00C5C0l--«0Csrf>i.t0 

to 

«005tO^~^>^         «DClltOg^C0          00rf».l—  i-.05COH-'00>f«"t-'«00>fcoi-«^If>. 

-^-i-^ososcscsa>c;tc;ttnt^  *>-rf^*>.corocotototototoi— 'i— 'i— 'h- 

o.  too-^tntoo-^tntoo-^c^Ttoo-icrtbco-^cJtEoo-^oitoo-aotfco 

to 

1— ' 
to 

O50S0SO5           050SOSOS050SOSOSOSOSOS 

bOtOtOtOI-'H-l-'h-'l-'i-'h-l-'l-iH-l-'i-'t-- 
tOI-'^-OOQOQO~lasC7tO»rfk.COtOtOH-'OeOOOO><l050Str»h*^COCOtOl-«© 

CO 

■5- 

to 

OS  «0          CO  OS  «0          to  OS  «0          CO  OS  so          CO  OS  so          to  OS  «0          CO  OS  «0          CO  OS  «o 

coto^ototo^o^ototototOl—'^-'l-•^-l|— 'I— '(—'»-«)-'>— • 
o^ooo-^osC^t^totoi— 'o<ooo-<io>c;«tf>.cctOp— 'O«ooo«<icst)t>^cotot— ' 

to 

74 


SCANTLING   MEASURE. 


Table  continued. 


ir-^ 


03W  50C5W  <OOC0  tOOW  «OC5tO  5CO5C0  «005C/3  CDC^tC 


Cnt0t0O«O^c:*«.C0H-O00^tn4i.t0h-<X)Q00sC«08t0O<X)-^0St*^Wt-' 

CO 

050500050501CSC5C50SOJCSOC5 

O^C^^^^^*i.^*k.t^^fk,^;i.C«WCOCOtO^O^^S^C^^^fcO^D^-J^-*l— 'H-*l— •»— ' 

OitO'      tooi«5        coo>«o        osoio        ccoseo        CCC5«0        wosco        toos«o 

;, 

Oi  to         0501S0         COCiO         COOiCO         CCCiSO         tooco         WOCO 


QO  en  tc 

tC  C5  CO 


00  05  Crt  CC  t-J 


SCANTLING    MEASURE. 

Table  continued. 

75 

1 

i 

1 
1 

II 

(X)^        OCfi-        00  4^        00»*>-        Cn^        00rf>.        OOfI*.        oorf^        oo»*>.        oo*>. 

00  ^  ~1  ^  OS  CS  CS  Oi  C7»  C  C;"  0>  >^  »*».  4s^  >f».  Ca3  CO  CO  to  to  tC  bO  t-»  i-i  w  (_* 
0-<Itf't>S«OOSrf».H-00050iOOOCnti©^^<i.CC<OOi*-l-'OOC5COOCXi«tC 

00 

*>.  00          ^<X)         >f>.  00         >f>.  00         rf^  00         4="  00         ►fi^  00         >f>.  00          *^  00         tf^QO 

«o00ocoo--i-M"<io»o>oicsC'»o»c;»tf^>^>;!».cocococctct5tNOH-»— '1— ' 

O^»f>-r-00Cnt0C0  0JCCO^»*>»'-'00mK)OCSC0O^4-^00C«tC«00SC0 

*-< 

us 

ocD<o«ooooooo^^-flC50»o»c;tC7»c;i>;».»*>.>f>^cocowbCit*fca^t-'^ 

OOStOOCSCOOOSCCOOiOOOOSCrfOOsCOOOSCCOOSCOOOsCOOOtO 

(—1 
o 

00  »*k.         00  ►*;>>         00  rf^         00  »*>>         00  i+i-         00  >f>.         OD  rf^         00  >*^         00  >f».         00  rf>. 

^000«OCC>OOOCQO-^^OS05C5CnCr'0»tf^h*».»f^C«COlsDlOtCb-l-'>-' 
005l>»«5  0i^Qt*'0>^COyDCStOOOO»»-'~^ri^005COCOCneCOO*>.»-»-^CO 

O  ►f^  00         >f^  00         >f>.  00         rf''  00         tf>.  00         >f>.  00          rf».  00         ►*«.  00          rf»»  00         4^00 

tO^-i-iOOO'««0000000~^«^0>OSCSC7»Cn4».>*>.*>.COtOfcOtCt«3l-'^ 
OO>t000>f».OO»t000rf».O0ib000tf^O0SK)00i*>.OOSt0004>i.O0StCl00>^ 

to 

ososC^^c«c?«o^-•^f>.4>.^*».►^i.coo^c«oocol^^^a^cn^ol^Sl-'l-'»-'•-•l-» 

t0O000»»*».|>3O^C!iC«>—  <X>^mC0»-'«C>~^Cnt>3O000S»f>'tCO00CS>*^t0 

oj  en  rf^  CO  to  H-       H-- 1-- «>  00  ■^  OS  oi  rffc.  ctf  to  •--       H- ►- o  00  ^  OS  en  ►*>.  CO  to  •-' 

•^•>a-io>osc50>cnC7ic:»o»>ffc.»;^>^rf>i.cocotocototototo»— 't— '1— '1— » 
OitOO~aOTtoO~40<toO--lCntoO'^CntOO~^CntOO'^C;itOO-^C;ttO 

OS 

OSCSC50»OSO>0>a>OC50>CSOSCiCS 

000000'^'^-5-50JCSC5C7«0»C;it;^h*>^rf».»^COC«COtOtOtOtO»-'l-'h-» 

~J»4i-l-'00e^tOO^tf'-—  QOC^tO«OOiCOO^OitO«OOSCOO~**«.l-'OOU»tO 

-1 

0»  ~1  OO  CO  —  i-i         h-  to  CO  tf>.  en  C5  ^  QO  «0  K-  ►—         H-i  to  CO  *^  en  CS -4  00  «0  1-'  •— 

0«0«0(;DOOOOOO-a-3-JasOSC»OiCnO»rf».4»-t*«'COCOCCtON5tC»i-iH-i-« 

wO5C0Oc;C0OC5C0OCiC0OO5CCOC5CCOO5C0O0iC0OCJC0O0iC0 

en 
00 

00  hf>.         00  4^         00  rf^         00)^         00  4^         00  »^         00  rf>.         00  »^         00  rf^         00)^ 

■ 

^000«0«0«00000'^-<I'>aCTs05asC?»C?»(*ii.rfi^>|ii.COCOCOtOfcOl-'l-'t-' 
tOOOCni*-->IWOa5tOQOCrtH-^COOO:itOOOO»(-'^COOOStOOOO»H-^00 

en 

en  «0         CO  05  «0         CO  05  «0         CO  OS  «0         CO  OS  «0         CO  OS  «0         CO  OS  «>         CO  OS  CO 

76                                              SCANTLING    MEASURE. 

Table  continued. 

1 
1 

i 

i 

1 

1 

t 

! 

i 

i 

COtOtOfcOtClCfcCtOtOtCltO^I-'l-'h-'l-il-'t-'l-'  !"'»-' 

ft 

1 

1 

i 

i 

j 

1 

j 

1 
1 

i 

1 

o                        o                        o                        o                        o 

05 

t— '  t— ' 

05a>05C50io?oo>o>a>CiojC5C50s 

t>3»—  —  OOOOOQOOOQO->^^OSOSOSCrtO»rf».rfi.t*>i.WCOtCtCfcCl-'H- 

o 

i 

tCK-H-'  —  OC«OSOOOOOOO^-^C505CJt»iOtrf^*^»KCOCOtCtOtC(-'f— 

H-  o                                               —  o 

00 

»f>>  QO         »f>- 00         ri^  00          »^  00          M^  OO         ff>.  00          If^  00         4^00         >f^  00         »f^00 

^t^^^a5^c5oa,oot«3t*^ix)rf>.oowoo&o^t*^u<o5H-c5h-'oiocn 

a- 

CSW          SOCiCCi          «OCiW          OCiCC          OC7SW          COOSW          tCO5t0          «OC5W 

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1 — 

SCANTLING    MEASURE.                                            77 

Table  continued. 

Feet 
Long. 

9  by  10 

9  by  11 

10  by  10 

10  by  11 

10  by  12 

11  by  11 

11  by  12 

1 

7.6 

8.3 

8.4 

9.2 

10. 

10.1 

11. 

2 

15 

16.6 

16.8 

18.4 

20. 

20.2 

22. 

3 

22.6 

24.9 

25. 

27.6 

30. 

30.3 

33. 

4 

30. 

33. 

33.4 

36.8 

40. 

40.4 

44. 

5 

37.6 

41.3 

41.8 

45.10 

50. 

50.5 

55. 

6 

45. 

49.6 

50. 

55. 

60. 

60.6 

^^. 

7 

52.6 

57.9 

58.4 

64.2 

70. 

70.7 

77. 

8 

60. 

66. 

66.8 

73.4 

80. 

80.8 

88. 

9 

67.6 

74.3 

75. 

82.6 

90. 

90.9 

99. 

10 

75. 

82.6 

83.4 

91.8 

100. 

100.10 

110. 

11 

82.6 

90.9 

91.8 

100.10 

no. 

110.11 

121. 

12 

90. 

99. 

100. 

110. 

120. 

121. 

132. 

13 

97.6 

107.3 

108.4 

119.2 

130. 

131.1 

143. 

14 

105. 

115.6 

116.8 

128.4 

140. 

141.2 

154. 

15 

112.6 

123.9 

125. 

137.6 

150. 

151.3 

165. 

16 

120. 

132. 

133.4 

146.8 

160. 

161.4 

176. 

17 

127.6 

140.3 

141.8 

155 . 10 

170. 

171.5 

187. 

18 

135. 

148.6 

150. 

165. 

180. 

181.6 

198. 

19 

142.6 

156.9 

158.4 

174.2 

190. 

191.7 

209. 

20 

150. 

165. 

166.8 

183.4 

200. 

201.8 

220. 

21 

157.6 

173.3 

175. 

192.6 

210. 

211.9 

231. 

22 

165. 

181.6 

183.4 

201.8 

220. 

221.10 

242. 

23 

172.6 

189.9 

191.8 

210.10 

230. 

231.11 

253. 

24 

180. 

198. 

200. 

220. 

240. 

242. 

264. 

25 

187.6 

206.3 

208.4 

229.2 

250. 

252.1 

275. 

26 

195. 

214.6 

216.8 

238.4 

260. 

262.2 

286. 

27 

202.6 

222.9 

225. 

247.6 

270. 

272.3 

297. 

28 

210. 

231. 

233.4 

256.8 

280. 

282.4 

308. 

29 

217.6 

239.3 

241.8 

265.10 

290. 

292.5 

319. 

30 

226. 

«.47.6 

250. 

275. 

300. 

302 . 6 

330. 

Explanation. — Find  the  length  in  feet  in  the  left  banc 

I 

column,  and  the  dimensions  of  the  sides  in  inches  at  the 

head  of  the  other  cohimn,  and  underneath  the  latter  and 

opposite  the  length  will  be  found  the  contents  in  feet  and 

inches  board  measure. 

CASK-GAUGING. 


Casks  are  usually  comprised  under  the  following  figures, 
viz. : 

1.  The  middle  frustum  of  a  spheroid. 

2.  The  middle  frustum  of  a  parabolic  spindle. 

3.  The  two  equal  frustums  of  a  paraboloid. 

4.  The  two  equal  frustums  of  a  cone. 

Their  contents  can  be  computed  by  the  rules  for  ascer- 
taining the  contents  of  these  figures. 

But  in  almost  all  ordinary  casks  the  hilge  or  swell  from 


CASK-GAUGING.  79 

the  hung  to  the  head  (not  from  head  to  head)  is  so  small, 
that  they  are,  with  scarcely  an  appreciable  difference  in  the 
results,  usually  regarded  as  the  two  equal  frustums  of  a 
cone,  and  are  very  accurately  gauged  by  three  dimensions, 
as  follows : 

To  find  the  contents  of  a  cask  hy  three  dimensions. 

EuLE. — Add  the  bung  and  head  diameters  in  inches,  and 
divide  them  by  2  for  the  mean  diameter ;  find  the  area  of 
the  mean  diameter  in  the  table  of  the  areas  of  circles  on 
page  and  multiply  it  by  the  length  of  the  cask  in 

inches ;  then  divide  the  product  by  231  (the  cubic  inches 
in  a  gallon),  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  gal- 
lons the  cask  contains. 

Example. — What  are  the  contents  in  gallons  of  a  cask, 
the  Ining  diameter  of  which  is  22  inches,  the  head  diameter 
20  inches,  and  the  length  32  inches  ? 

Solution. — 22  +  20=42-^2=21,  mean  diameter:  then 
346.36,  area  of  mean  diameter,  x  32=11083.52-231  = 
47.98  gallons.     Ans. 

When  the  cask  is  much  bilged  or  rounded  from  the  bung 
to  the  head,  a  more  accurate  way  is  to  gauge  by  four 
dimensions,  as  follows : 

To  find  the  contents  of  a  cask  hy  four  dimensions. 

Rule. — Add  the  head  and  bung  diameters  in  inches,  and 
the  diameter  taken  in  inches  in  the  middle  between  the 
bung  and  head,  and  divide  their  sum  by  3  for  the  mean 
diameter ;  find  the  area  of  the  mean  diameter  in  the  table 


80  CASK-GAUGIA^G. 

of  the  areas  of  circles  on  page  and  multiply  it  by  the 

length  of  the  cask  in  inches  and  divide  the  product  by  231 
(the  cubic  inches  in  a  gallon),  and  the  quotient  will  be  the 
contents  of  the  cask  in  gallons. 

Example. — What  are  the  contents  in  gallons  of  a  cask, 
the  bung  diameter  of  which  is  24  inches,  the  middle  dia- 
meter 20  inches,  the  head  diameter  16  inches,  and  its  length 
40  inches  ? 

Solution.— 24  +  20  +  16  =  60  —  3  —  20,  mean  diameter  : 
thdn  314.16,  area  of  mean  diameter,  x40  inches,  length  = 
12566.40-^231  =  54.4  galls.     Am, 


CAPACITY  OF  BOXES. 

A  box   24   inches   by  16   inches  square,  and  28  inches 

deep,  will  contain  a  barrel  (5  bushels). 

A  box  24  inches  square  and  14  inches  deep,  will  contain 

half  a  barrel. 

A  box  26  inches  by  15.2  inches   square,  and   8  inches 

deep,  will  contain  one  bushel. 

A  box  12  inches  by  11.2  inches  square,  and  3  inches  deep, 

will  contain  half  a  bushel. 

A  box  8  inches  by  8.4  inches  square,  and  8  inches  deep, 

will  contain  one  peck. 

A  box  8  inches  by  8  inches  square,  and  4.2  inches  deep. 

will  contain  one  gallon. 

A  box  7  inches  by  4  inches  square,  and  4.8  inches  deep. 

will  contain  half  a  gallon. 

A  box  4  inches  by  4  inches  square,  and  4.1  inches  deep, 

will  contain  one  quart. 

4* 

CAPACITY  OF  WAGON-BEDS. 


Wagon-Beds. 


In  most  of  the  Eastern  and  many  of  the  Western 
cities  all  market-men  and  traders,  who  make  use  of  their 
wagon-beds  as  measures,  are  required  to  have  them  gauged 
and  their  capacity  stamped  on  them  by  an  oflScer  appointed 
for  that  purpose.  The  wagon-makers  in  the  country  should 
stamp  the  contents  in  bushels  on  each  bed  they  make  before 
it  leaves  the  shop.  Should  it  be  neglected,  the  following 
rule  wdll  enable  every  farmer  to  measure  the  contents  in 
bushels  of  his  wagon-bed  for  himself: 

To  find  the  contents  of  wagon-'beds. 

Rule. — If  the  opposite  sides  are  parallel,  multiply  the 
length  inside  in  inches,  by  the  breadth  inside  in  inches, 
and  that  again  by  the  depth  inside  in  inches,  and  divide 


CAPACITY   OF   WAGON-BEDS.  83 

the  product  by  2150.42  (the  number  of  cubic  inches  in  a 
bushel),  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  capacity  in  bushels. 

Example. — What  is  the  capacity  of  a  wagon-bed  10  feet 
long,  4  feet  wide,  and  15  inches  deep  ? 

Solution. — 120  inches,  length,  x  48  inches,  width,  x  15 
inches,  depth,  =86400-^-2150.42=40  bushels.     Ans. 

KuLE  2. — Should  the  head  and  tail  boards,  or  either  of 
them,  be  set  in  bevelling,  add  the  top  and  bottom  Jengths 
together  and  divide  by  2  for  the  mean  length,  and  proceed 
by  the  foregoing  rule.  Should  the  sides  be  sloping,  add 
the  top  and  bottom  widths,  and  divide  by  2  for  the  mean 
width,  and  proceed  by  the  foregoing  rule. 

Should  the  contents  be  required  in  cubic  feet,  divide  the 
product  by  1728  (the  number  of  cubic  inches  in  a  cubic 
foot),  instead  of  2154.42,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  con- 
tents in  cubic  feet. 


FALSE   BALANCES. 


To  detect  false  halances^  scales^  c&e. 

Rule. — After  weighing  the  article  transpose  the  weight 
and  the  article  weighed,  and  if  the  latter  is  too  light  the 
weight  will  preponderate;  if  too  heavy  the  article  will 
preponderate. 

To  find  the  true  weight. 

Rule. — After  transposing  them  as  above,  find  the  addi- 
tional weight  that  will  produce  an  equilibrium :  weigh  it 
with  the  article  by  the  same  balances:  multiply  the  two 
false  weights  thus  found,  together,  and  the  square  root  of 
the  product  will  be  the  true  weight. 

Example. — An  article  weighs  7  lbs.  by  a  false  balance  : 
transposed  it  is  found  too  light^  and  requires  an  additional 
weight  to  produce  a  counterpoise:  this  additional  weight 
is  found  by  the  same  balances  to  have  a  false  weight  of  9^ 
lbs.     What  is  the  true  weight  of  the  article  ? 


FALSE    BALANCES.  85 

Solution. — 9|  x  7=64,  the  square  root  of  which  is  8  lbs., 
the  weight,     uins. 

Example  2.— An  article  weighs  7  lbs. :  transposed  it  is 
found  too  heavy,  weighing  only  5|  lbs.  by  the  same  scales. 
What  is  the  true  weight  ? 

Solution. — 7  x  5-^=36,  the  square  root  of  which  is  6  lbs., 
the  true  weight.     A7is. 

Note. — In  the  1st  example  the  additional  weight  is 
added  to  the  article  to  produce  the  equilibrium :  in  the 
second  example  the  deficiency  is  taken  from  the  weight  to 
produce  the  counterpoise. 


CISTEKNS. 

To  find  the  nmaher  of  gallons  in  square  or  ohlong  squa/re 
cisterns. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  length  in  inches  by  the  width  in 
inches,  and  that  by  the  depth  in  inches,  and  divide  the  pro- 
duct by  231.     The  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  gallons. 

Example. — Given,  a  cistern  6  feet  long  by  3  feet  wide 
and  4  feet  deep ;  how  many  gallons  will  it  contain  ? 

Solution.  — 72  inches,  length,  x  36  inches,  width,  x48 
inches,  depth,  =  124416-^ 231  =538.69  galls.     Ans. 

To  fi/nd  tJie  number  of  gallons  in  triangular  cisterns. 


d 


Rule. — Multiply  the  base  a  h  m  inches,  by  the  perpen- 
dicular height  c  din  inches,  and  half  that  sum  by  the  depth 
in  inches,  and  divide  the  product  by  231.  The  quotient 
will  be  the  number  of  gallons. 

Example. — Given,  a  triangular  cistern  8  feet  at  the  base 
or  longest  side,  Y  feet  in  perpendicular  height,  4  feet  deep. 
How  many  gallons  will  it  contain  ? 


CISTERNS. 


87 


Solution.— 96  inches,  base,  x  84,  perpendicular  height 
in  inches,-r2=4032x48,  depth  in  inches,  =  112896 -^231 
=488.72  galls.     Ans, 

To  find  the  number  of  gallons  in  circular  cisterns. 

KuLE.— Find  the  area  of  the  circle  in  square  inches,  in 
the  table  of  the  ''  Areas  of  Circles,"  on  page  or  by  the 

rule  given  on  page  Then  multiply  the  area  by  the 

depth  in  inches,  and  divide  the  product  by  231.     The  quo- 
tient will  be  the  number  of  gallons. 

Example. — Given,  a  cistern  8  feet  in  diameter  by  6  feet 
deep.     How  many  gallons  will  it  contain  ? 

Solution.  — Area,  the  diameter  being  96  inches         7238. 2 
Multiplied  by  60  in. ,  the  depth,  gives     43429. 20 
Divided  by  231 ,  cubic  in.  in  a  gall. ,  ' '         1 880.     gall.     Ans. 

Table,  showing   the  contents  of  circular  cisterns  from  1 
foot  to  25  feet  in  diameter^  for  each  10  inches  in  depth. 


DIAMETER. 
1 

2 
3 

H 

4 

H 

5 


gallons. 

4.896 

11.016 

19.583 

30.545 

44.064 

59.980 

78.333 

99.116 

122.400 

148.546 

176.253 

206.855 

239.906 


diameter. 

8 

^ 

9 
10 

11 

12 
13 
14 
15 
20 
25 


GALLONS. 

271.072 

313.340 

353.735 

396.573 

441.861 

489.600 

592.400 

705. 

827.450 

959.613 

1101.610 

1958.421 

3059.934 


88  CISTERNS. 

To  find  the  number  of  gallons  in  tub-shaped  cisterns. 

Rule.— Find  the  cubes  of  the  top  and  bottom  diameters 
in  inches,  by  means  of  the  table  on  page  divide  the 

difference  between  those  cubes  by  the  difference  of  the 
diameters  in  inches,  and  multiply  this  quotient  by  .7854, 
and  again  by  \  of  the  depth  in  inches,  and  divide  the  pro- 
duct by  231.     The  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  gallons. 

Example. — Given,  a  tub-shaped  cistern  of  a  top  diameter 
of  10  feet,  a  bottom  diameter  of  8  feet,  and  6  feet  deep. 
How  many  gallons  will  it  contain  % 

Solution.— Cube  of  120  inches,  the  top  diameter,  1728000 

96       "         "    bottom     "  884736 

Difference  between  cubes  of  diameters,  843264 

Divided  by  24,  difference  of  diameters,  gives  .35136 

Multiplied  by  .7854,  gives  27595.8144 

' '    again  by  24,^  the  depth  in  inches,  gives  662299 . 5456 

Divided  by  231,  cubic  inches  in  a  gallon,  gives     2867.09 
galls.     Am. 

EuLE  2. — Add  the  top  and  bottom  diameters  in  inches 
and  divide  by  2  for  the  mean  diameter.  Find  the  area  in 
square  inches  of  the  mean  diameter  by  means  of  the  table 
on  page         or  by  the  rule  given  on  page  Multiply 

the  area  by  the  depth  in  inches,  and  divide  the  product  by 
231,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  gallons. 

Example. — What  are  the  contents  in  gallons  of  a  cistern 
8  feet  diameter  at  the  top,  6  feet  at  the  bottom,  and  4  feet 
deep  ? 


CISTERNS.  89 

Solution. — 96  inches  -f  72  inches  =  168-7-2=84  inches, 
mean  diameter;  then  5541.77,  area  of  mean  diameter,  x 48 
inches,  depth,=266004.96-^  231  =  1151.63  gallons.     Ans. 

ISToTE. — The  quantity  of  water  whicli  falls  upon  most 
farm  buildings  is  sufficient  to  afford  an  ample  supply  for 
the  domestic  animals  of  the  farm,  when  other  supplies  fail, 
were  cisterns  large  enough  to  hold  it  provided.  The  aver- 
age amount  of  rain  that  fails  in  the  latitude  of  the  Northern 
States  during  the  year,  is  about  3  feet  per  year,  or  3  inches 
per  month.  Every  inch  in  depth  that  falls  upon  a  roof 
yields  2  barrels  for  each  ten  feet  square,  and  72  barrels  a 
year  are  yielded  by  3  feet  of  rain.  A  barn  30  by  40  feet 
supplies  annually  from  its  roof  864  barrels,  which  is  more 
than  2  barrels  per  day,  the  year  round. 

The  size  of  cisterns  should  vary  according  to  their  in- 
tended use.  If  they  are  to  furnish  a  daily  supply  of  water, 
they  need  not  be  so  large  as  for  saving  supplies  against 
summer  and  droughts. 

The  size  of  the  cistern  in  dailf/  use  need  not  exceed  that 
of  a  body  of  water  on  the  whole  roof  of  the  building,  7 
inches  deep,  or  two  months'  greatest  fall  of  rain.  Cisterns 
intended  to  save  the  water  to  draw  from  in  time  of  drought, 
should  be  about  three  times  as  large.     ' 

To  ascertain,  the  size  of  cisterns  adapted  to  roofs^  i&c. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  length  of  the  roof  in  inches  by  the 
breadth  in  inches,  and  that  by  the  depth  of  the  fall  of  rain 
required  to  be  saved,  and  divide  the  product  by  231,  and 


90  CISTERNS. 

the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  gallons.  Divide  the 
number  of  gallons  by  31^,  and  it  will  give  the  number  of 
barrels. 

Example, — What  must  be  the  capacity  of  a  cistern  to 
contain  the  water  running  from  a  roof  40  feet  long  by  30 
wide,  for  2  months :  estimated  fall  of  rain  7  inches  ? 

Solution. — 480  inches,  length,  x  360  inches,  width,  x  7 
inches,  depth  of  rain,  =1909600-231  =  82661  galls.     Ans. 

Note. — To  ascertain  the  necessary  dimensions  of  a  cis- 
tern large  enough  to  contain  8266f  gallons,  consult  the 
foregoing  table.  It  will  there  be  found  that  a  cistern  13 
feet  in  diameter  contains  827  gallons  for  each  10  inches  in 
depth.  To  give  the  cistern  10  times  that  depth,  or  100 
inches  (S^  feet)  will  make  it  contain  8270  gallons.  Hence 
a  cistern  13  feet  in  diameter,  and  8^  feet  deep,  will  be  large 
enough. 

To  further  aid  the  inquirer  in  ascertaining  the  requisite 
diameters  of  cisterns  for  the  above  purposes,  we  subjoin 
an  additional 

Table,  showing  the  contents  of  circular  cisterns  in  barrels 
for  each  foot  in  depth. 

5  feet 4.66 

6  "  6.74 

7  "  9.13 

8  "  11.93 

9  "  15.10 

10  '^  18.65 


ClSTEitN6. 


91 


.  The  above  cut  represents  the  sectional  view  of  a  filtered 
cistern,  with  a  brick  wall  partition  in  the  middle  and  the 
box  of  charcoal  and  sand  at  the  bottom,  with  alternate  layers 
of  each.  The  pipe  at  the  left  leads  from  the  roof,  and  the 
one  at  the  right  connects  with  tlie  pump.  With  this  style 
of  cistern  properly  constructed,  no  one  need  be  in  want  of 
pure  wholesome  water. 

To  construct  a  filtering  cistern  to  furnish  pure  water 
for  domestic  use. 

Rule. — Divide  the  cistern  into  two  equal  compartments 
by  a  wall  of  brick  or  stone,  open  at  the  bottom  to  the 
height  of  about  six  inches,  and  water-tight  thence  to  the 
top.  Let  one  compartment  bo  for  receiving  the  water, 
and  the  other  for  containing  it  when  filtered  and  ready  for 
use.     Put  alternate  layers,  6  inches  deep,  of  gravel,  sand, 


92 


CISTERNS. 


and  pounded  charcoal  at  the  bottom  of  the  former,  and 
sand  and  gravel  at  the  bottom  of  the  latter.  The  former 
will  receive  the  water  from  the  pipe,  and  it  will  rise  filtered 
in  the  latter. 

Another  Mode. — Divide  the  cistera  as  above  by  a 
double  open  wall  of  stone  or  brick,  with  an  interspace  of 
about  six  inches  between  the  walls.  Fill  the  interspace 
with  sand  and  pounded  charcoal.  Let  one  compartment 
receive  the  water,  and  it  will  pass  through  the  filter  into 
the  other  ready  for  use. 


HYDKAULICS. 

The  science  of  hydraidics  treats  of  the  motion  of  non- 
elastic  fluids ;  hydrodynamics,  of  the  force  of  that  motion  ; 
and  hydrostatics,  of  the  pressure,  weight,  and  equilibrium. 

THE  FUNDAMENTAL  LAWS  OF  HYDRAULICS,  &c. 

1.  Descending  water  is  governed  bj  the  same  laws  as 
falling  bodies. 

2.  Water  will  fall  1  foot  in  ^  of  a  second,  4  feet  in  ^  a 
second,  and  9  feet  in  f  of  a  second,  and  so  on  in  the  same 
ratio. 

3.  The  velocity  of  a  fluid  propelled  through  an  orifice 
by  a  head  of  water  in  a  cistern  or  reservoir,  is  the  same 
that  a  body  would  acquire  by  falling  perpendicularly 
through  a  space  equal  to  that  between  the  top  of  the  head 
and  the  centre  of  the  opening,  le><s  the  friction  which,  in 
pipes,  drains,  and  sluices,  increases  as  the  square  of  the 
velocity. 

4.  The  mean  velocity  of  water  propelled  through  an 
opening  by  a  head  of  1  foot  is  5f  feet  per  second. 

5.  Fluids  press  equally  in  all  directions. 

6.  The  pressure  of  a  fluid  on  the  bottom  of  a  vessel  is  as 


94  HYDRAULICS. 

the  base  and  perpendicular  height,  whatever  may  be  the 
figure  of  the  vessel. 

7.  The  pressure  of  a  fluid  on  any  kind  of  surface,  hori- 
zontal, vertical,  or  oblique,  is  equal  to  the  weight  of  the 
column  of  the  fluid,  the  base  of  which  is  equal  to  the  area 
of  the  surface  pressed,  and  the  height  of  which  is  equal  to 
the  distance  from  the  surface  of  the  fluid  to  its  centre  of 
gravity,  on  the  surface  pressed. 

8.  The  side  of  a  vessel  filled  with  water  sustains  a 
pressure  equal  to  the  area  of  the  side  multiplied  by  half 
the  depth,  whether  the  sides  be  vertical,  oblique,  or  hori- 
zontal. 

9.  If  the  vessel  be  tub-shaped,  or  in  the  form  of  an  in- 
verted frustum  of  a  cone  or  pyramid,  the  bottom  sustains 
a  pressure  equal  to  the  area  of  the  bottom  and  the  depth 
of  the  fluid. 

10.  The  quantity  of  water  that  will  flow  out  of  a  per- 
pendicular slit  or  aperture  from  the  surface  of  the  head  to 
its  base,  is  but  two-thirds  of  what  would  flow  out  of  a  slit 
of  the  same  dimensions  were  it  horizontal  at  the  level  of 
the  base. 

11.  A  circular  pipe  of  the  same  area  as  a  square^  tricm- 
gular^  or  irregular  one,  will  discharge  Tnore  water  in  a  given 
time. 

12.  The  greater  the  length  of  the  discharging  pipe,  the 
less  the  discharge,  unless  the  pipe  be  perpendicular. 


HYDKAULICS.  95 

13.  A  pipe  that  is  inclined  will  discharge  more  water  in 
a  given  time  than  a  horizontal  pipe  of  the  same  dimen- 
sions. 

14.  The  friction  of  a  fluid  is  greater  in  small  than  in 
large  pipes,  when  equal  quantities  are  discharged. 

15.  In  perpendicular  pipes,  the  discharge  being  governed 
by  the  law  of  gravitation,  the  greater  the  length  of  the 
pipe,  the  greater  the  discharge. 

16.  When  a  prismatic  vessel  empties  itself  through  an 
aperture,  twice  the  quantity  would  be  discharged  in  the 
same  time  if  it  were  kept  full. 

17.  In  a  stream,  sluice,  or  ditch,  the  velocity  is  the 
greatest  at  the  surface  and  in  the  middle  of  the  current. 

18.  The  time  occupied  by  a  given  quantity  of  water 
passing  through  pipes  or  sewers  of  equal  apertures  and 
lengths,  and  with  equal  falls,  is  in  the  following  propor- 
tions, viz. :  In  a  straight  line,  as  90 ;  in  a  regular  curve,  as 
100  ;  and  in  passing  a  right  angle,  as  140. 

To  Jmd  the  velocity  of  a  stream  issuing  from  a  head 
of  water. 

KuLE. — Multiply  the  height  of  the  head  in  feet  by  64.33, 
and  the  square  root  of  the  product  will  be  the  velocity  in 
feet  per  second. 

Example. — What  is  the  velocity  of  a  stream  projected 
through  an  opening  b}^  a  head  of  12  feet  ? 


96  HYDRAULICS. 

Solution. — 12x64.33=771.96,  the  square  root  of  which 
is  27.780  feet  per  second.     Ans. 

To  find  the  heady  the  velocity  heing  given. 

Rule. — Square  the  velocity  and  divide  it  by  64.33,  and 
the  quotient  will  be  the  head  in  feet. 

Example. — What  is  the  head  of  water  that  projects  a 
stream  27.780  feet  per  second  ? 

Solution.— 27.780'=771.96-^64:.33=12  feet.     Ans. 

Note. — In  the  above  results  no  allowance  is  made  for 
friction,  which  should  be  made  in  order  to  ascertain  the 
practical  results.  The  friction  of  water  passing  out  of 
orifices,  and  not  through  pipes,  sluices,  or  sewers,  is,  how- 
ever, very  small. 

To  find  the  quantity  of  water  that  will  issue  from  an 
ojpening^  the  dimensions  of  the  opening  and  the  head  heing 
given. 

Rule. — Find  the  velocity  of  the  jet  or  stream  by  the 
foregoing  rule,  and  multiply  it  by  the  area  of  the  orifice 
in  feet,  and  the  product  will  be  the  number  of  cubic  feet 
per  second  the  orifice  w411  discharge. 

Example. — How  much  water  w^ill  an  orifice  of  an  area 
of  2  square  feet  discharge  per  second  under  a  head  of  12 
feet? 

Solution. — 12x64.33=771.96,  the  square  root  of  which 
is  27.780  feet  velocity;  then,  27.780x2  feet,  area,  =  55^ 
cubic  feet  per  second.     Ans. 


HYDRAULICS. 


97 


To  find  the  velocity  of  currents  in  drains^  ditches^ 
sluices^  brooks,  or  rivers. 

Rule. — Find  the  velocity  of  the  surface  of  the  current 
in  the  middle  of  the  stream  by  taking  the  number  of  inches 
a  floating  body  passes  over  it  in  one  second. 

This,  for  all  ordinary  practical  purposes,  will  be  suffi- 
cient. But  to  find  the  mecm  or  average  velocity,  take  the 
square  root  of  the  velocity  so  found  J  double  it,  and  deduct 
it  from  the  velocity  at  the  top,  and  add  one  to  the  remainder, 
and  the  result  will  be  the  velocity  at  the  bottom.  Add  the 
top  and  bottom  velocities,  and  divide  them  by  two  for  the 
mean  velocity. 

Example. — What  is  the  mean  velocity  of  a  current,  the 
velocity  of  which  at  the  surface,  in  the  middle  of  the 
stream,  is  36  inches  per  second  ? 

Solution.—  |/36=0  x  2=1 2-36  =  24  H-  1=25,   velocity 


98  HYDKAULICS. 

at  bottom;  then,  364-25=61^2=30.5  inches  per  second, 
mean  velocity.     Ans, 

To  find  the  volume  of  water  discharged  hy  drains,  sluices, 
brooks,  dtc,  of  given  dimensions,  in  a  gi/ven  time. 

.Rule. — Multiply  the  velocity  of  the  current  per  second 
in  feet,  by  the  area  of  the  transverse  section  of  the  drain 
or  sluice,  in  feet,  and  the  product  will  be  the  quantity  dis- 
charged per  second,  in  cubic  feet. 

Example. — What  volume  of  water  will  a  drain  2  feet 
wide  and  3  feet  deep  discharge  in  one  hour,  the  mean  velo- 
city of  the  current  being  30  inches  per  second  ? 

Solution. — 2x3=6  sq.  ft.,  area  of  section  x2J  ft.,  velo- 
city,=15  cubic  feet  discharged  per  second;  then,  15  x 
3600  seconds  (one  hour) =54,000  cubic  feet  per  hour. 
Ans. 

Note. — The  standard  gallon  contains  231  cubic  inches, 
and  a  cubic  foot  contains  1728  cubic  inches.  Accordingly, 
a  cubic  foot  of  water  contains  Y.4Y6  standard  gallons. 
Hence,  if  we  multiply  the  number  of  cubic  feet  b}^  7.476, 
it  will  give  tlie  number  of  gallons.  For  instance,  the  drain 
in  the  above  example  discharges  54,000  cubic  feet  per 
hour,  which,  multiplied  by  7.476,  gives  403,704  gallons 
discharged  per  hour. 

To  fim,d  the  velocity  of  water  running  through  pipes. 
Rule. — Multiply  the  height  of  the  head  in  feet  by  2500 ; 
divide  this  product  by  a  divisor  obtained  as  follows :  Di- 


HYDRAULICS.  99 

vide  13.88  by  the  diameter  of  the  pipe  in  inches,  and  mul- 
tiply the  quotient  by  the  length  of  the  pipe  in  feet,  and 
the  result  will  be  the  divisor  aforesaid.  Divide  the  first 
product  by  this  sum,  and  the  square  root  of  the  quotient 
will  be  the  velocity  in  feet  per  second  of  the  current  in  the 
pipe. 

Example. — What  is  the  velocity  of  water  in  a  pipe  6 
inches  diameter  and  100  feet  long,  and  under  a  head  of  2 
feet? 

Solution.— 13.88-^5332.776x100=^77.6  and  2500x2 
=5000;  then,  5000-^277.6=18,  the  sq.  root  of  which  is 
4.24  feet.     Ans. 

To  find  the  quantity  of  water  discharged  through  pipes. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  velocity  of  the  current  per  second 
in  feet  by  the  area  of  the  transverse  section  of  the  pipe  in 
feet,  and  the  product  will  be  the  quantity  discharged  in 
cubic  feet  per  second. 

Example. — What  quantity  of  water  will  a  pipe  6  inches 
diameter  and  100  feet  long  discharge  per  hour  under  a 
head  of  2  feet? 

Solution. — By  the  preceding  rule,  find  the  velocity  of 
the  current  in  the  pipe,  thus:  2500x2  feet,  head, =5000, 
13.88-^6  inches,  the  diameter  of  the  pipe,  =  2.313  x  100 
feet,  length  of  the  pipe,  =  231.3,  divisor;  5000-7-231.3= 
24.34,  the  square  root  of  which  is  4.80  feet,  velocity  per 
second.     Then,  4.80  x  .1963  square  feet,  area  of  pipe,= 


100  HYDRAULICS. 

.942  cubic  feet  discharged  pei  second.    .942  x  3600  seconds 
(one  hour) =3391  cubic  ft,  discharged  per  hour.     Ans. 

To  jmd  the  pressure  of  a  fluid  on  the  hottom  of  a  vessel, 
cistern,  or  reservoir 

Rule, — Multiply  the  area  of  the  base  in  square  feet  by 
the  height  of  the  fluid  in  feet,  and  their  product  by  the 
weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  the  fluid. 

Example. — What  is  the  pressure  on  the  bottom  of  a 
cistern  10  feet  in  diameter  and  8  feet  deep,  filled  with 
water  ? 

Solution.— 78.54,  area  of  bottom,  x  8=628.32  x  62^  lbs., 
the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  water, =39.370  lbs.     Ans. 

To  jmd  the  pressure  on  the  side  of  a  vessel. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  area  of  the  side  in  feet  by  half  its 
depth  in  feet,  and  that  by  the  lbs.  per  cubic  foot  of  the 
fluid. 

Example. — What  is  the  pressure  upon  the  sloping  side 
of  a  pond  10  feet  square  by  8  feet  deep  ? 

Solution.— 10^=100x4,  half  the  depth,=400x62^  lbs., 
the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  water, =25000  lbs.     Ans. 

Note. — It  is  proper  to  remark  that  all  of  these  rules, 
while  they  are  theoretically  correct,  do  not  pretend  to  em- 
brace a  variety  of  circumstances  which  affect  the  flow  of 
water  through  apertures,  and  which  should  be  taken  into 
consideration  in  all  cases.     These  circumstances  cannot  be 


HYDRAULICS.  101 

measured  bj  rules,  and  the  just  estimate  of  their  influence 
must  depend  on  experience. 

1.  Water  will  flow  more  rapidly  from  an  aperture  in  a 
vessel  if  a  funnel-shaped  tun  or  a  rapidly  widening  trough 
be  attached  to  it  on  the  outside.  This  prevents,  so  to 
speak,  the  intercrossing  of  the  currents  as  they  flow  over 
the  sides  of  the  aperture ;  instead  of  obstructing  itself,  by 
reason  of  its  tendency  to  cross  the  centre  of  the  opening, 
the  water  follows  the  sides  of  the  funnel  or  trough,  and 
allows  the  full  area  of  the  opening  to  discharge  freely. 

2.  The  ease  with  which  a  given  quantity  of  water  can 
be  made  to  paCss  through  a  pipe  depends  (other  things 
being  equal)  upon  the  proportion  between  the  area  of  the 
opening  and  st  circumference — the  latter  being  a  source 
of  friction.     (See  Nos.  14  and  11  above.) 

3.  The  ease  of  the  flow  depends  on  the  perfect  uni- 
formity of  the  channel.  A  lump  or  any  other  inequal- 
ity in  the  side  of  a  pipe  will  disturb  the  current  and  cause 
the  water  to  obstruct  itself.  Perfect  form  is  more  import- 
ant than  a  smooth  surface. 

4.  The  same  principle  operates  in  the  case  of  deflections 
from  a  straight  line.  If  the  water  is  turned  out  of  its 
course  the  evenness  of  the  flow  is  disturbed,  and  it  becomes 
more  diflicult  (see  No.  18  above).  The  influence  of  a 
''regular  curve"  is  in  proportion  to  its  radius;  more 
water  will  flow  through  a  pipe  which  turns  in  a  large  circle 
than  in  one  which  turns  more  abruptly. 


This  cut  is  intended  to  illustrate  the  use  of  the 
Hydraulic  Eani ;  representing  one  operated  by 
the  water,  from  a  spring  near  which  it  is  located, 
and  forcing  the  water  through  suitable  leading  and 
discharge  pipe,  to  a  considerable  elevation  (either 
perpendicular  or  upon  an  inclined  plane)  to  a  trough, 
which  may  be  placed  in  any  convenient  locality  for 
watering  farm  stock  of  every  description, — affording 
a  constant  supply  of  fresh  water  the  year  round.  It 
may  also  be  used  to  supply  a  cistern  or  a  water-tank 
in  the  house. 


THE  HYDRAULIC  RAM. 

The  hydraulic  ram  is  a  machine  for  forcing  a  portion 
of  a  brook  or  stream  to  any  required  elevation  and  distance, 
when  the  requisite  head  or  pressure  can  be  obtained. 

Wherever  a  large  spring  or  a  limited  but  constant  stream 
is  at  hand,  by  which  a  fall  of  four  or  five  feet  may  be  pro- 
duced, by  building  a  dam  or  otherwise,  a  portion  of  the 
water  of  such  spring  or  stream  may  be  raised  to  a  perpen- 
dicular height  of  more  than  100  feet  by  its  own  power, 
through  the  agency  of  the  water-ram.  Thus,  a  stream  in 
a  deep  valley,  or  a  rivulet  or  brook  situated  some  distance 
below  a  point  where  it  is  desired  to  have  a  cistern  or  re- 
servoir, may  be  made  to  raise  a  part  of  its  water  by  one 
of  these  machines.  From  such  a  cistern  or  reservoir  the 
water  may  afterwards  be  conveyed  to  any  part  of  the  pre- 
mises below  it,  and  applied  for  the  purpose  of  irrigation, 
watering  of  stock,  manufactories,  or  domestic  or  ornamental 
use. 

The  power  of  the  ram,  and  the  height  to  which  it  will 
raise  the  water,  as  also  the  quantity  raised,  are  in  propor- 
tion to  the  volume  of  the  stream  and  the  head  or  fall  ob- 
tained. 

The  ram  is  applicable  where  no  more  than  18  inches  fall 
can  be  obtained. 


104  THE    HYDRAULIC    RAM. 

The  distance  which  the  water  has  to  be  convej^ed,  and 
the  consequent  length  of  pipe,  have  also  a  bearing  upon 
the  quantity  raised  and  its  elevation,  as  the  larger  the  pipe 
through  which  the  water  has  to  be  forced,  the  greater  the 
friction  to  be  overcome,  and  the  more  the  power  consumed 
in  the  operation. 

The  ram  can  be  applied  to  convey  water  a  distance  of 
from  100  to  200  rods,  and  to  elevations  of  from  100  to  200 
feet. 

A  fall  of  10  feet  from  the  spring  or  brook  to  the  ram  is 
sufficient  to  force  the  water  to  any  elevation  not  over  150 
feet  above  the  ram,  and  in  distance  not  over  150  rods 
from  it. 

Although  the  same  fall  will  raise  water  to  a  much 
greater  elevation,  and  force  it  to  a  greater  distance,  yet  the 
quantity  will  diminish  as  the  height  and  distance  are  in- 
creased. 

When  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  is  raised  by  an  ade- 
quate fall  the  fall  should  not  be  increased,  as  by  so  doing 
the  strain  upon  the  ram  is  unnecessarily  increased,  and  its 
durability  lessened. 

The  proportion  which  the  height  to  which  the  water  is 
raised,  and  the  quantity  raised,  bear  to  the  fall  and  to  the 
volume  of  the  spring  or  stream,  is  about  five  times  the 
height  of  the  fall,  and  \  of  the  volume  of  the  stream  forced 
a  distance  of  50  rods — allowing  for  the  friction  in  both  the 
supply  and  discharging  pipes. 


THE    HYDRAULIC    RAM.  105 

Thus,  if  the  ram  be  placed  under  a  fall  of  5  feet,  for 
every  7  gallons  drawn  from  the  spring,  1  gallon  may  be 
raised  25  feet,  or  J  a  gallon  50  feet,  and  forced  a  distance 
of  50  rods.  If  the  fall  be  10  feet,  it  will  raise  one  gallon 
50  feet,  or  ^  a  gallon  100  feet,  for  every  7  gallons  dis- 
charged by  the  stream.  If  the  fall  be  10  feet,  and  the  vol- 
ume of  the  stream  he  doubled^  it  will  raise  1  gallon  100 
feet,  and  so  on  in  the  same  ratio. 

The  pipe  leading  from  the  spring  or  head  of  the  fall  to 
the  ram  is  called  the  supply  pipe. 

The  pipe  leading  from  the  ram  to  the  reservoir  or  cistern 
is  called  the  discharging  pipe. 

The  shorter  and  straighter  the  supply  pipe,  the  better. 
Hence,  unless  the  supply  pipe  is  laid  to  the  head  of  a 
spring,  it  is  better  to  dam  the  stream  at  the  head  of  its 
greatest  fall,  and  after  inserting  the  supply  pipe  at  the  base 
of  the  dam,  let  it  follow  the  depression  of  the  bed  of  the 
stream  to  the  ram  at  the  lowest  point. 

The  shorter  and  straighter  the  discharging  pipe  the  bet- 
ter ;  there  is  less  friction  to  be  overcome. 

Should  it  be  necessary  to  curve  either  pipe,  let  the  radium 
of  the  curve  be  as  large  as  possible. 

To  ascertain  the  quantity  of  water  and  the  height  to 
which  it  may  he  elevated  hy  a  given  fall  and  volume  of 
water — discharging  pipe  not  over  50  rods. 

Rule. — Find,  by  means  of  a  common  level,  the  fall  of 

your  spring  or  stream ;  then  find  the  quantity  of  water  it 

5* 


106  THE    HYDRAULIC   RAM. 

discharges  per  minute  or  hour,  by  means  of  the  rule  given 
for  that  purpose  on  page  98 ;  then  multiply  the  height  of 
the  fall  by  5,  for  the  elevation,  and  divide  the  number  of 
gallons  discharged  by  the  stream  by  7,  for  the  quantity 
of  water  raised. 

Example. — Given,  a  spring  with  a  fall  of  8  feet,  dis- 
charging 28  gallons  per  minute.  How  high  and  how 
much  water  will  it  raise  per  minute  by  means  of  a  ram — 
discharging  pipe  not  exceeding  50  rods  ? 

Solution.— 8  x  5=40  feet  elevation.  28-^7=4  gals,  per 
minute.     Ans. 

]>^OTE. — In  the  same  ratio,  it  will  raise  2  gallons  80  feet 
per  minute,  or  1  gallon  160  feet  per  minute,  and  so  on. 

The  following  working  results  of  water  rams  now  in 
actual  use,  will  enable  the  inquirer  to  ascertain  the  elevat- 
ing capacity  of  springs,  with  various  falls  and  volume  of 
water.  The  rams  used  are  "  Rumsey  &  Co.'s  Premium 
Hydraulic  Rams,"  Seneca  Falls,  N.  Y. 

1. — Fall  from  surface  of  water  in  spring  to  ram 4  feet. 

Length  of  supply  pipe,  inside  diameter  1  inch 60     " 

Volume  of  water  discharged  by  spring  in  10  minutes 25  gallons. 

Length  of  discharging  pipe,  inner  diameter  |  inch,  curved  in 

three  places  to  a  semicircle ISO  feet. 

Elevation  of  discharging  pipe  from  ram  to  cistern 19 

Discharged  every  ten  minutes 3;^  gallons. 

2.— Fall  from  surface  of  water  in  spring  to  ram 10  feet. 

Length  of  supply  pipe,  inside  diameter  li  inches 40     " 

Volume  of  water  discharged  by  spring  per  minute 20   gallons. 

Length  of  discharging  pipe,  i  inch  inside  diameter. 50  rods. 

Elevation  of  discharging  pipe  from  ram  to  cistern 85  feet. 

Discharged  per  minute ^i  gallons. 


THE   HYDRAULIC    RAM.  107 

3  — Fall  from  surface  of  water  in  spring  to  ram 8J  feet. 

Length  of  supply  pipe,  inside  diameter  1  ^  inches 30      *' 

Volume  of  water  discharged  by  spring not  given. 

Length  of  discharging  pipe  inside  diameter  ^  inch 30  roda. 

Elevation  of  discharging  pipe  from  ram  to  cistern 35  feet. 

Discharged  a  constant  stream  ^  inch  diameter. 

4. — Fall  from  surface  of  water  in  spring , 12  feet. 

Length  of  supply  pipe,  inside  diameter  1  j  inches 32     " 

Volume  of  water  discharged  by  spring not  given. 

Length  of  discharging  pipe,  inside  diameter  |  inch 14  rods. 

Elevation  of  discharging  pipe  from  ram  to  cistern  at  barn. ...  35  feet. 
Discharged  a  constant  stream  ^  inch  diameter,  at  barn,  afford- 
ing more  than  a  supply  for  62  head  of  cattle. 

5. — Fall  from  surface  of  water  in  spring  to  ram 9  feet. 

Length  of  supply  pipe,  inside  diameter  one  inch 50     " 

Volume  of  water  discharged  by  spring not  given. 

Length  of  discharging  pipe  inside  diameter  -J  inch 100  feet. 

Elevation  of  discharging  pipe  from  ram  to  cistern 35     ♦' 

Discharges  a  constant  stream,  ^  inch  diameter,  into  a  cistern 
at  house  and  after  supplying  water  for  the  domestic  use  of 
a  large  family,  passes  off  to  the  cattle  yard  20  rods  further, 
affording  an  abundant  supply  for  a  large  herd  of  cattle. 

6.— Fall  from  surface  of  water  in  spring  to  ram 8  feet. 

Length  of  supply  pipe,  inside  diameter  1 5  inches not  given. 

Volume  of  water  dischaiged  by  spring *• 

Length  of  discharging  pipe,  ^  inch  inside  diameter 70  rods. 

Elevation  of  discharging  pipe  from  ram  to  cistern 80  feet. 

Delivers  a  good  supply  of  running  water  at  house  and  barn, 
sufficient  for  all  necessary  purposes. 

7. — Fall  of  water  from  surface  of  spring  to  ram 10  feet. 

Length  of  supply  pipe,  inside  diameter  Ih  inches not  given. 

Volume  of  water  discharged  by  spring.    '    «« 

Length  of  discharging  pipe.  ^  inch  inside  diameter 76  rods. 

Elevation  of  discharging  pipe  from  ram  to  cistern IIG  f^e*". 

Delivers  a  constant  stream  of  ^  inch  diameter. 

8.— Fall  from  surface  of  spring  to  ram 61  feet. 

Length  of  supply  pipe,  inside  diameter  1^  inches 60  rods.* 

Elevation  of  discharging  pipe  from  ram  to  cistern 60  feet. 

Discharges  sufficient  water  in  barn  yard  to  supply  80  head  of  cattle. 

9.— Fall  from  surface  of  spring  to  ram 9  feet. 

Size  of  supply  pipe,  inside  diameter  2  inches,  length not  given. 

Length  of  discharging  pipe,  mside  diameter  |  inch 150  rods. 

Elevation  of  discharging  pipe  from  ram  to  cistern 130  feet. 

Delivers  an  abundant  supply  of  water  for  house,  barn,  barn-yard  and  hog-pen. 


108  THE    HYDRAULIC    RAM. 

10. — Fall  from  surface  of  dam  to  ram Y  feet. 

Length  and  size  of  supply  pipe not  given. 

Volume  of  water  discharged  by  stream " 

Length  of  discharging  pipe,  (size  not  given) 126  rods. 

Elevation  of  discharging  pipe  from  ram  to  cistern 75  feet. 

Discharges  25  barrels  of  water  in  24  hours. 

11. — Fall  from  spring  to  ram 11  feet. 

Size  of  supply  pipe,  2  inches  calibre ;  length 42  " 

Length  of  discharging  pipe,  i  inch  calibre 75  rods. 

Elevation  of  discharging  pipe  from  ram  to  cistern 98  feet. 

Discharges  over  80  barrels  of  water  per  day. 

Note. — The  size,  strength,  and  weight  of  the  supply  and 
discharging  pipes  must  be  in  proportion  to  the  head  or 
pressure  on  them.  They  are  proportioned  and  adjusted  to 
the  capacity  of  the  ram  by  the  manufacturer,  and  are  gen- 
erally sold  with  the  machine. 

When  a  very  large  supply  of  water  is  required  for  manu- 
facturing or  other  purposes,  and  a  stream  of  sufficient  vol- 
ume and  fall  is  obtained,  it  is  better  to  set  two  or  three 
rams  of  a  smaller  size,  all  playing  into  one  discharging 
pipe,  than  to  set  one  large  ram.  If  one  ram  becomes  dis- 
abled, the  others  supply  the  demand. 

Should  the  fall  and  volume  of  one  stream  or  spring  not 
supply  enough  water,  and  at  the  required  elevation,  and 
there  be  other  springs  near  by,  set  a  ram  in  each,  all  meet- 
ing in  one  discharging  pipe.  Their  combined  power  will 
increase  the  elevation  and  the  quantity  raised. 

The  pipes  can  be  so  laid,  and  the  ram  so  set,  as  to  pro- 
tect them  from  the  frost  during  the  winter. 

The  fall  of  one  spring  or  strearn  may  be  used  to  raise  the 
water  of  another  and  better  spring  or  stream,  whose  own 
fall  is  not  sufficient. 


THE    HYDRAULIC    RAM.  109 

Mr.  H.  L.  Emery,  of  Albany,  in  a  communication  to  the 
Counti'y  Gentleman^  says :  "  The  result  of  a  water  ram  is 
calculated  upon  the  principle  that  a  pound  of  force  will 
raise  a  pound  of  water  an  equal  height,  and  a  less  quantity 
to  a  greater  height,  which  height  is  limited  only  by  the 
strength  of  the  pipes  themselves. 

"  To  enable  any  one  to  select  the  size  ram  it  is  necessary 
to  compute  the  elevation  to  be  overcome,  and  the  greatest 
amount  of  fall  which  can  be  conveniently  obtained,  and 
divide  the  first  by  the  last,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the 
proportion  of  the  water  (passing  through  the  drive-pipe) 
which  will  be  raised ;  first,  however,  deducting  for  waste 
of  power  and  friction  say  \  of  the  amount ;  thus,  with  ten 
feet  fall  and  one  hundred  feet  elevation,  one-tenth  of  the 
water  would  be  raised,  if  there  were  no  friction  or  loss; 
but  deducting,  say  one-quarter  for  loss,  and  7J  gallons  for 
each  100  gallons  would  be  raised,  all  the  balance  of  the 
water  being  required  or  wasted  to  accomplish  this  result." 


THE  HYDKAULIC  PRESS. 


The  Hydraulic  or  Hydrostatic  Press  is  a  machine  by 
which  a  small  force  may  be  made  to  exert  a  great  pressure. 
Its  construction  may  be  understood  by  the  above  cut.  Two 
metallic  cylinders,  A  and  B,  of  different  sizes,  are  joined 
together  by  a  tube  K.  In  the  small  cylinder  there  is  a 
piston  p  which  can  be  moved  up  and  down  by  the  handle 


THE    HYDRAULIC    PRESS.  Ill 

M.  In  the  large  cylinder  there  is  also  a  piston  P,  having  at 
its  upper  end  a  large  iron  plate,  which  moves  freely  up  and 
down  in  a  strong  frame-work  Q.  Between  the  iron  plate 
and  the  top  of  this  framework  the  body  to  be  pressed  is 
placed.  Now,  when  the  small  piston  is  raised,  the  cylinder 
A  is  filled  with  water  drawn  from  the  reservoir  H,  below, 
and  when  it  is  pushed  down  this  water  is  forced  into  the 
large  cylinder  through  the  pipe  K.  There  is  a  valve  in  this 
tube  which  prevents  the  water  from  returning,  so  that  each 
stroke  of  the  small  piston  pushes  an  additional  quantity  of 
water  into  the  large  cylinder.  By  this  means  the  large 
piston  is  pushed  up  against  the  body  to  be  pressed.  To  cal- 
culate the  pressure  exerted  by  the  large  piston  we  must 
remember  that  the  force  acting  upon  the  piston  in  A,  will 
be  exerted  upon  every  equal  amount  of  surface  in  B.  To 
illustrate  this :  suppose  the  area  of  the  large  piston  to  be  10 
times  the  area  of  the  small  one ;  then  one  pound  at  A  will 
produce  a  pressure  of  ten  pounds  at  P.  The  handle  M  in- 
creases the  advantage  still  more,  according  to  the  principle 
of  the  lever  to  be  explained  in  a  future  chapter.  By  in- 
creasing the  size  of  the  large  cylinder,  and  diminishing  the 
size  of  the  small  one,  the  pressure  exerted  by  a  given  power 
will  be  increased  proportionately.  The  weight  of  a  man's 
hand  might  thus  be  made  to  lift  a  ship  with  all  its  cargo. 
The  only  limit  to  the  increase  of  power  would  be  the  strength 
of  the  material  of  which  the  machine  is  made. 


WEIGHT  OF  LEAD  PIPE. 


Table,  showing  the  weight  of  lead  jpi^e  jper  ya/rd,  from  \ 
to  4i\  incJies  diameter. 


Diameter. 


Weight  in 
lbs.    oz. 


\  inch 


«       (< 


medium 3 

strong 4 

light 3 

medium 4 

strong 5 

extra  strong 6     6 

light 5 

medium 6     6 

strong 7     8 

extra  strong 8     4 

"     light 5 

light 6     4 

medium 8 

strong 9  12 

extra  strong 10    8 

"      light..... 6  14 

light 8    6 

medium 10    5 

strong 12    4 

extra  light 8    5 

light.. 9  12 

medium 11 

strong 12 


extra  strong 


8 
.14  10 


Weight  Iti 
lbs.    oz. 


\\  inch  extra  light 9 

"     "    light    13 

*'     •*    medium 15     8 

"     '*    strong 19 

If    **    medium 16 

"      *♦    strong 20 

2  "    light 16  12 

"      "    medium 20 

"      "     strong 23 

^    "    light 25 

"     *'    medium 30 

"     "     strong 35 

3  ♦'     light 30 

'*      "    medium 35 

**     "     strong 44 

?^    **     medium 45 

"      **    strong 54 

"     **    extra  strong 70 

4  *'    waste,  light 15  14 

medium 21 

strong 26 

4^    "        "      light 17    4 

medium 24 

strong 29 


Yery  light  pipe. 


1  lb. 
U  " 

2  " 


f  inch 3  lbs.     6 

1     "    6  "      10 

U  "     6  "      14 


\  inch 

*     "    

i     "    

%     "    

Note. — Should  the  pipe  be  sold  by  the  pound,  multiply 
the  price  per  lb.  by  the  weight  per  yard  in  the  above  table, 
and  it  will  give  the  price  per  yard. 


FUEL. 


The  following  table,  abridged  from  Browne's  Sylva 
Americana^  will  be  found  valuable  to  housekeepers  in  aid- 
ing them  to  form  an  estimate  of  the  comparative  value  of 
fire  woods  in  a  seasoned  state ^  or  when  burnt  to  charcoal. 
Table,  showing  the   Comparative  Values   of  Fire  Woods, 


Shellbark  Hickory, 

Common  Walnut, 

White  Oak 

Thick  Shellbark  Hickory, . 

White  Ash, 

Scrub  Oak, 

Witch  Hazel 

Apple  Tree, 

Red  Oak, 

B  ack  Gum, 

Black  Walnut,  

White  Beech,   

Black  Birch 

Yellow  Oak, 

Sugar  Maple,    , 

Sassafras,   , 

White  Elm, , 

Holly, 

Wild  Cherry, 

Yellow  Pine, 

Sycamore,  or  Buttonwood 

Chestnut, , 

Spanish  Oak, 

Poplar, , 

Butternut, 

White  Birch, 

Jersey  Pine, 

Pitch  Pine, . . 

White  Pine 

Lombardy  Poplar, 


o 

■§ 

o 

l| 

g  3 

go 

O  5 

% 

la 

a  o 

fl 

ii 

0-3 

00  5 

M 

^ 

ta 

&4 

M 

1.000 

4469 

.625 

82.89 

1172 

36 

.949 

4241 

.637 

33.52 

1070 

32 

.855 

3821 

.401 

21.10 

826 

39 

.829 

3705 

.509 

26.78 

848 

32 

.722 

3450 

.547 

28.78 

888 

31 

.747 

3339 

.392 

20.63 

774 

38 

.784 

3505 

.368 

19.36 

750 

39 

.697 

3115 

.445 

2;.. 41 

779 

33 

.728 

3255 

.400 

21.05 

630 

30 

.703 

3142 

.400 

21.05 

696 

33 

.681 

3044 

.418 

22.00 

687 

31 

.724 

3233 

.618 

27.26 

635 

23 

.697 

3115 

.428 

22.52 

604 

27 

.653 

2919 

.295 

15.52 

631 

41 

.644 

2878 

.431 

22.68 

617 

27 

.618 

2762 

.427 

22.47 

624 

28 

.680 

2592 

.357 

18.79 

644 

34 

.602 

2691 

.374 

19.68 

613 

31 

.597 

2668 

.411 

21.63 

579 

27 

.551 

2463 

.333 

17.52 

585 

o3 

.535 

2391 

.374 

19.68 

564 

29 

.522 

2333 

.379 

19.94 

690 

30 

.548 

2449 

.362 

19.05 

562 

30 

.563 

2516 

.383 

20.15 

549 

27 

.567 

2534 

.237 

12  47 

527 

42 

.530 

2369 

.364 

19.15 

450 

24 

.478 

2137 

.385 

20.26 

632 

26 

.426 

1904 

.298 

15.68 

510 

33 

.418 

5868 

.293 

15.42 

455 

30 

.397 

1774 

.245 

12.89 

444 

84 

1-1 


100 
95 
81 
81 
77 
73 
72 
70 
69 
67 
65 
65 
63 
60 
60 
59 
68 
67 
65 
64 
62 
62 
52 
62 
51 
48 
48 
43 
42 
40 


114:  FUEL. 

Note. — It  will  be  remarked  that  shellbark  hickory  is 
made  the  standard  in  the  above  table,  not  only  of  the  fuel 
but  also  of  the  specific  gravity,  the  value  and  specific 
gravity  of  the  other  woods  being  determined  by  the  pro- 
portion they  severally ,  bear  to  this  standard.  The  table 
has  a  further  use,  namely,  to  determine  the  price  that 
should  be  paid  per  cord  for  other  woods,  taking  the  price 
paid  for  shellbark  hickory  as  the  standard.  For  instance, 
should  shellbark  be  selling  for  $6.00  per  cord,  white  oak 
is  worth  $4.86 ;  for,  as  100,  the  value  of  shellbark,  :  $6.00, 
its  price, ::  81,  the  value  of  white  oak,  :  $4.86,  its  price; 
and  other  kinds  in  the  same  proportion. 

A  cord  of  wood  is  128  cubic  feet;  the  sticks  or  billets 
are  cut  4  feet  long  and  piled  4  feet  high  and  4  feet  wide ; 
8  feet  in  length  making  a  cord. 

The  wood-cutter  has  a  measure  of  two  feet  marked  on  his 
axe  handle  with  which  he  measures  the  length  of  each  stick, 
making  due  allowance  for  the  carf,  or  the  bevel  of  the  cut. 
All  fuel  should,  however,  be  sold  by  weight. 

When  the  weights  of  difierent  woods  are  equal,  that 
which  contains  the  most  hydrogen  will,  during  combustion, 
give  out  the  greatest  amount  of  heat.  Hence,  pine  is  pre- 
ferable to  oak,  and  bituminous  to  anthracite  coal.  "When 
wood  is  used  as  fuel  it  should  be  thoroughly  dried,  as  in 
its  green  and  ordinary  state  it  contains  25  per  cent,  of 
water ;  the  heat  to  evaporate  which  is  necessarily  lost.  To 
kiln-dry  it  adds  12  per  cent,  to  its  value  over  seasoned  wood. 


FUEL. 


115 


Coal  Mining  in  Pennsylvania. 

Table,  showing  the  weights  per  cvMc  foot  of  the  different 
kinds  of  Coal. 

Designation.  Weight  in  lbs. 


Designation.  Weight  in  lbs. 

Anthracite, 50  to  55 

Bituminous 45  to  55 

Cumberland, 63 

Virginia,  (bitum.) 49 


Western,  (bitum.) 47 

English,         "        50 

Charcoal,  (hard  wood) 18  J 

do.       (soft  or  pine  wood).  . .   18 


Note. — Soft  coals  are  usually  purchased  at  the  rate  of 
28  bushels  of  5  pecks  each,  to  a  ton  of  43.56  cubic  feet. 
Anthracite,  20  bushels  to  the  ton 

To  prepare  charcoal. 

Charcoal  is  prepared  by  clearing  off  the  top  soil  from  a 
circular  space  of  the  required  dimensions,  and  piling  bil- 


116  FUEL. 

lets  of  wood  in  it  into  a  pyramidal  heap,  with  several 
spiracles  or  flues  formed  through  the  pile.  Chips  and 
brushwood  are  put  into  those  below,  and  the  whole  is  so 
constructed  as  to  kindle  through  in  a  very  short  time.  It 
must  then  be  covered  all  over  with  clay  or  earth  beaten 
close,  leaving  openings  at  all  the  spiracles  or  flues.  The 
pile  is  then  ignited,  and  carefully  watched  and  kept  from 
bursting  into  a  flame,  by  instantly  closing  the  flues  should 
such  happen.  Whenever  the  white  watery  smoke  issuing 
from  the  flues  is  observed  to  be  succeeded  by  a  thin,  blue, 
and  transparent  smoke,  the  holes  must  be  immediately 
stopped ;  this  being  the  indication  that  all  the  watery  vapor 
is  gone,  and  the  burning  of  the  true  coaly  matter  com- 
mencing. Thus  a  strong  red  heat  is  raised  throughout  the 
whole  mass,  and  all  the  volatile  matters  are  dissipated  by 
it,  and  nothing  now  remains  but  the  charcoal.  The  holes 
being  all  stopped  in  succession  as  this  change  of  the  smoke 
is  observed,  tlie  fire  goes  out  for  want  of  air.  The  pile  is 
now  allowed  to  cool,  which  requires  many  days,  for  char- 
coal being  a  very  bad  conductor  of  heat,  the  pile  long 
remains  red  hot  in  the  centre,  and  if  opened  in  this  state 
would  instantly  burn  with  great  fury.  Even  when  it  is 
opened,  the  heat  retained  by  some  of  the  larger  pieces 
often  ignites  it,  to  guard  against  which  water  should  be 
provided  to  instantly  extinguish  it  when  observed. 

PROPERTIES  OF  CHARCOAL. 

Although  charcoal  is  so  combustible,  it  is,  in  some  re- 


FUEL.  117 

spects,  a  very  unchangeable  substance,  resisting  the  action 
of  a  great  variety  of  other  substances  upon  it.  Hence  posts 
are  often  charred  before  being  put  into  the  ground.  Grain 
has  been  found  in  the  excavations  at  Herculaneum,  which 
was  charred  at  the  time  of  the  destruction  of  that  city, 
eighteen  Jiundred  years  ago,  and  yet  the  shape  is  perfectly 
preserved,  so  that  you  can  distinguish  between  the  different 
kinds  of  grain.  While  charcoal  is  itself  so  unchangeable, 
it  preserves  other  substances  from  change.  Hence  meat 
and  vegetables  are  packed  in  charcoal  for  long  voyages, 
and  the  water  is  kept  in  casks  which  are  charred  on  the 
inside.  Tainted  meat  can  be  made  sweet  by  being  covered 
w^ith  it.  Foul  and  stagnant  water  can  be  deprived  of  its 
bad  taste  by  being  filtered  through  it.  Charcoal  is  a  great 
decolorizer.  Ale  and  porter  filtered  through  it  are  deprived 
of  their  color,  and  sugar-refiners  decolorize  their  brown 
syrups  by  means  of  charcoal,  and  thus  make  white  sugar. 
Animal  charcoal,  or  bone-black,  is  the  best  for  such  pur- 
poses, although  only  one-tenth  of  it  is  really  charcoal,  the 
other  nine-tenths  being  the  mineral  portion  of  the  bone. 

Charcoal  will  absorb,  of  some  gases,  from  eighty  to  ninety 
times  its  own  bulk.  As  every  point  of  its  surface  is  a 
point  of  attraction,  it  is  supposed  to  account  for  the  enor- 
mous accumulation  of  gases  in  the  spaces  of  the  charcoal. 
But  this  accounts  for  it  only  in  part.  There  must  be  some 
peculiar  power  in  the  charcoal  to  change,  in  some  way, 
the  condition  of  a  gas  of  which  it  absorbs  ninety  times  its 
own  bulk. — Hooker. 


118  FUEL. 

I^OTES.— The  best  quality  of  charcoal  is  made  from  oak, 
maple,  beech,  and  chestnut. 

Wood  will  furnish,  when  properly  charred,  about  20  per 
cent,  of  coal. 

A  bushel  of  coal  from  hard  wood  weighs  30  lbs. 

A  bushel  of  coal  from  pine  weighs  29  lbs. 
Table,  showing  the  number  of  parts  of  charcoal  afforded 
hy  100  parts  of  different  kinds  of  wood. 

•^oods.  Parts  charcoal.        Color. 

Lignum    Yit^    afforded 26.8  Grayish. 

Mahogany  "       25.4  Brown. 

Laburnum  "       24.5  Velvet  black. 

Chestnut  "       23.2  Glossy  black. 

Oak  "       22.6  Black. 

Black  beech  "       21.4  Fine  black. 

ll^^Wy  "       19.9  Dull  black. 

Sycamore  "       19.7  Fine  black. 

Walnut  "        20.6  Du     b  ack. 

Beech  "       19-9  ^^^^  black. 

Maple  "        19.9  Dull  black. 

Norway    Pine  "       19.2  Shmmg  black. 

Y[xa  "         19.2  Fine  black. 

Sallow        "  H-^  i'^?^  ^^f ^• 

^gl^  "        17.9  Shmmg  black. 

;Bij.(.h  "       1T.4  Velvet  black. 

Scottish  Pine  "       1^.4:  Brownish. 

COKE. 

Sixty  bushels   ot    Newcastle   lump   coal,  will    make  92 
bushels  of  coke. 

Sixty  bushels  of  Newcastle  slack,  or  fine  coal,  will  make     i 

85  bushels  of  coke. 


FUEL. 


119 


Sixty  bushels  Pictou  or  Yirginia  Coal,  will  made  75  bushels 
coke  of  an  inferior  quality  compared  with  the  above. 

A  bushel  of  the  best  coke  weighs  32  lbs. 

Tlie  production  of  coke  by  weight  is  about  |-  that  of  coal. 

Coal  furnishes  60  to  70  per  cent,  of  coke  by  weight. 

1  lb.  of  coke  will  evaporate  in  a  common  locomotive  boiler 
7^-  lbs.  of  water  at  212°  into  steam. 

Table,  showing  the  weights^  evaporative  powers  per  weight, 
hulk  and  chxiracter  of  Fiiel, 


DESIGNATION. 


Bituminous. 
Cumberland  max., 

"  min , 

Blossburgh, 

Midlothian  screened, . . . 

'*  average, 

Newcastle, 

Pictou, 

Pittsburgh, 

Sydney, 

Liverpool 

Clover  Hi.l 

Cannelton,  la., 

Scotch, 

Anthracite. 

Peach  Mountain, 

Forest  Improv  ment^. . . 
Beaver  Meadows,  No.  5, . 

Lackawanna 

Beaver  Meadows,  Ko.  3, . 

Lehigh, 

Coke. 

Natural  Virginia, 

Midlothian, 

Cumberland, 

Wood. 
Dry  Pine  wood, 


1.3:3 
1.337 
1.3-4 
1.283 
1.294 
1.257 
1.318 
1.252 
1.338 
1.2G2 
1.285 
1.273 
1.519 

1.4G4 
1.477 
I  .554 
1.421 
I.CIO 
1.590 

1.323 


52.92 
54.29 
53.05 
45.72 
54.04 
60.82 
49.25 
46.81 
47.44 
47.88 
45.49 
47.  f  5 
61.09 

53.79 
53.66 
56.19 
48.89 
54.93 
55.32 

4G.G4 
32.70 
31.57 

20.01 


10.7 
9.44 
9.72 
8.94 
8.29 
8.66 
8.41 
8.20 
7.99 
7.84 
7.67 
7.34 
6.95 

^0.11 
0.06 
9.^8 
9.79 
9.21 
8.93 

8.47 
8.63 
8.99 

4.69 


£0   S 

^i1 


573.3 

532.3 

622.6 

438.4 

461.6 

453.9 

478.7 

384.1 

386.1 

411.2 

359.3 

360. 

369.1 

581.3 

577.3 

572.9 

493. 

526.5 

515.4 

407.9 
282.5 
284. 

98.6 


•Si 


2.13 
4.53 
3.40 
3.33 

8.82 
3.14 
6.13 
.94 
2.25 
1.86 
3.86 
1.64 
5.63 

3.03 
.81 
.60 
1.24 
1.01 
1.08 

5.31 

10.51 

3.55 


'I 


42.3 

41.2 

42.2 

49. 

41.4 

44 

45. 

47  8 

47.2 

46.7 

49.2 

47. 

48.8 

41.6 
41.7 
39.8 
45.8 
40.7 
40.5 

48.3 
68.5 
70.9 

106.6 


Prof.  W  R  Johnson. 


120  FUEL. 

N^.  B. — The  above  are  the  extreme  eiFects ;  for  practical 
use  let  a  deduction  of  ^  be  made  from  the  above. 

Combustible  matter  of  fuel. 

The  quantity  of  combustible  matter  of  fuel,  if  the  weight 
and  other  circumstances  be  equal,  may  be  learnt  from  the 
ashes,  or  residuum,  left  after  the  combustion.  For  example, 
good  Newcastle  coal  contains  a  greater  portion  of  combus- 
tible matter  than  I^ova  Scotia  coal,  and  leaves  behind  a 
smaller  amount  of  earthy  and  incombustible  substance. 
The  heating  power,  and  consequent  value,  of  different  kinds 
of  fuel,  is  affected  by  this  circumstance,  though  by  no  means 
dependent  on  it.  The  fitness  of  fuel  for  various  purposes 
is  furthermore  affected  by  the  facility  with  which  it  gives 
off  a  part  of  its  combustible  matter  in  the  form  of  vapor  or 
gas,  which,  being  burnt  in  that  state,  produces  flame.  For 
example,  the  bituminous  coals  abound  in  volatile  matter, 
which,  when  ignited,  supports  a  powerful  blaze.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Lehigh  and  Rhode  Island  coals  are  destitute 
of  bitumen,  and  yield  but  little  flame.  It  is  from  similar 
causes  that  dry  pine  wood  produces  a  powerful  blaze,  while 
its  charcoal  yields  comparatively  little.  A  blaze  is  of  great 
service  where  heat  is  required  to  be  applied  to  an  extensive 
surface,  as  in  reverberating  furnaces,  ovens,  glass-houses,  <fec. 
But  when  an  equable,  condensed,  or  lasting  fire  is  wanted, 
the  more  solid  fuels,  which  blaze  less,  are  to  be  preferred. 


FUEL. 


121 


Table,  showing  the  heating jpower  of  different  comhustihles. 


Lbs.  of  water  heated  1" 
Designation.  by  1  lb.  of  substance. 

Alcohol 11,000 

Olive  OU 14,500 

Beeswax 14,000 

TaUow 15,000 

Oak,  seasoned 4,600 

"    kiln -dried 5,960 

Pine,  seasoned 5,466 


Lbs.  of  water  heated  1** 
Designation.  by  1  lb.  of  substance. 

Coal,  Newcastle  9, 230 

"    Welsh 11,840 

"    Anthracite 9, 560 

"    Cannel 9,000 

Coke 9,110 

Peat 3,250 


Table,  showing  the  effects  of  heat  ujpon  certain  hodies. 


Designation.  Fahrenheit 

Gold  melts 1983° 

SDver     "    1850" 

Copper  "    2160' 

Brass      "    190tf 

Iron,  red  hot  in  daylight 1077' 

"          "               twilight 884' 

Common  fire 790" 

Zinc  melts 740^ 

Quicksilver  boils 630° 

Linseed  Oil     "    600° 

Lead  melts 594° 

Bismuth  melts 476° 

Tin  and  Bismuth,  equal  parts, 

melts 283° 


Designation.  Fahrenheit. 

Tin  melts 421° 

Water  boils 212° 

Alcohol    " 175° 

Ether            93° 

Heat  of  human  blood 98° 

Water  freezes 32° 

Strong  wine  freezes 20° 

Brandy                 •'     7° 

Mercury               "     —39° 

Greatest  cold  erer  produced*. .  —  220° 

Snow  and  salt,  equal  parts 0° 

Acetous  fermentation  begins. . .  78° 

"                "           ends 88' 

Phosphorus  burns 68° 


Table,  showing  the  relative  value  of  the  following  fuels  hy 

weight. 


Designation.  ■"  Value. 

Seasoned  oak 125 

Oak,  kiln-dried 140 

Hickory 137 

White  pine 137 

Yellow  pine 145 

Good  Coke 285 


Designation.  Value. 

Charcoal 285 

Peat 115 

Welsh        coal 312 

Newcastle    " 309 

Anthracite    "" 250 


*  The  lowest  temperature  hitherto  attained,  — 220°,  is  produced  by  evaporat- 
ing in  vacuo  a  mixture  of  solid  (condensed)  protoxide  of  nitrogen,  carbonic 
acid,  and  bisulphide  of  carbon. 

6 


122  FUEL. 


Table,  showing  the  nurabey  of  gallons  of  water  which  may 
he  lifted  to  various  heights  hy  the  consumjption  of  112  lbs. 
of  coal,  the  pumping  apparatus  being  good,  and  adapted 
to  the  power  of  the  steam  engine. 


Height.  Gallons. 

1  loot 1,600,000 

2  •'  800,000 

3  "  533,883 

4  "  400,000 

5  "  320,000 

6  "  266,666 

7  "  228,571 

8  "  200,000 


Height.  Gallons. 

9  feet. 177,777 

10  "  160,000 

11  "  145,454 

12  "  133,333 

13  "  123,076 

14  "  114,444 

15  "  106,666 

16  "  100,000 


Notes. — The  evaporative  power  of  1  lb.  of  bituminous 
coal  applied  to  a  steam  boiler,  is  from  6  to  9  lbs.  fresh  water 
in  the  boiler,  under  a  pressure  of  30  lbs.  to  the  square  inch, 
evaporated  into  steam.  Cumberland  coal  being  the  strong- 
est, and  Scotch  coal  the  weakest. 

The  evaporative  power  of  anthracite  coal,  aided  by  a  blast, 
is  from  7^  to  9f  lbs.  of  fresh  water  evaporated  into  steam 
for  1  lb.  of  coal. 

In  practical  evaporating  power  2^  to  2f  lbs.  of  wood  is 
equivalent  to  1  lb.  of  bituminous  or  anthracite  coal. 

One  cord  of  the  ordinary  seasoned  fire-wood  is  equal  in 
evaporating  power  to  12  bushels  (960  lbs.)  of  Pittsburgh  coal. 

One  ton  of  Cumberland  cdal  is  equal  in  evaporating  power 
to  IJ  tons  of  anthracite  coal,  and  equal  to  2.12  cords  of  dry 
pine  wood. 

One  ton  of  anthracite  coal  is  equal  to  If  cords  of  dry  pine 
wood. 

Each  cubic  foot  of  water  evaporated  in  a  boiler  at  the 


FUEL. 


123 


pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  will  heat  2,000  cubic  feet  of  in- 
closed air  to  an  average  temperature  of  75°. 

Each  square  foot  of  surface  steam-pipe  will  warm  200 
cubic  feet  of  space. 

One  pound  of  anthracite  coal  in  a  cupola  furnace  will 
melt  5  to  10  lbs.  of  cast  iron. 

80  bushels  of  bituminous  coal  in  an  air  furnace  will  melt 
10  tons  of  cast  iron. 

Small  or  fine  coal  produces  about  }  the  efiect  of  large 
coal  of  the  same  kind. 

Table,  showing  the  price  of  parts  of  a  cord  of  wood,  at  cer- 
tain rates  per  cord. 


FEKT 

si.:o 

$1.75 

$2.00 

$2.25 

$2.50 

$2.75 

$3.00 

$3.25 

1 

0  01 

0  01 

0  01 

0  02 

0  02 

0  02 

0  02 

0  02 

2 

0  02 

0  02 

0  03 

0  03 

0  04 

0  04 

0  05 

0  05 

3 

0  03 

0  04 

0  04 

0  05 

0  06 

0  06 

0  07 

0  07 

4 

0  05 

0  06 

0  06 

0  17 

0  08 

0  09 

0  09 

0  10 

5 

0  06 

0  07 

0  08 

0  09 

0  10 

0  11 

0  12 

0  13 

6 

0  07 

0  08 

0  09 

0  11 

0  12 

0  13 

0  14 

0  15 

7 

0  08 

0  10 

0  11 

0  12 

0  14 

0  15 

0  16 

0  17 

8 

0  (.9 

0  11 

0  12 

0  14 

0  16 

0  18 

0  19 

0  20 

16 

0  19 

0  22 

0  25 

0  18 

0  31 

0  35 

0  37 

0  40 

24 

0  28 

0  33 

0  37 

0  42 

0  47 

0  62 

0  56 

0  61 

32 

0  38 

0  44 

0  50 

0  66 

0  63 

0  69 

0  75 

0  81 

40 

0  47 

0  55 

0  63 

0  70 

0  78 

0  86 

0  94 

1  02 

48 

0  66 

0  66 

0  75 

0  84 

0  94 

1  03 

1  12 

1  22 

66 

0  61 

0  77 

0  88 

0  98 

1  09 

1  20 

1  31 

1  42 

64 

0  75 

0  88 

1  00 

1  13 

1  25 

1  38 

1  50 

1  62 

72 

0  84 

0  98 

1  13 

1  27 

1  41 

1  55 

1  69 

1  83 

80 

0  94 

1  09 

1  25 

1  41 

1  56 

1  72 

1  68 

2  03 

84 

0  98 

1  15 

1  31 

1  48 

1  64 

1  81 

1  97 

2  13 

88 

1  03 

1  20 

1  38 

1  55 

1  72 

1  89 

2  06 

2  23 

92 

1  03 

1  26 

1  44 

1  62 

1  80 

1  98 

2  15 

2  33 

96 

1  13 

1  31 

1  50 

1  (9 

1  88 

2  06 

2  25 

2  44 

104 

1  22 

1  42 

1  63 

1  83 

2  03 

2  23 

2  44 

2  64 

112 

1  31 

1  63 

1  75 

1  97 

2  19 

2  41 

2  62 

2  84 

120 

1  41 

1  64 

1  88 

2  11 

2  34 

2  58 

2  81 

3  05 

128 

1  50 

1  75 

2  GO 

2  25 

2  50 

2  75 

3  00 

3  25 

f^     OF   THE 

I  UNIVERSITY 


OF 


124  FUEL. 

Explanation. — Find  the  number  of  feet  in  the  left-hand 
column  of  the  table  ;  then  the  price  at  the  top  of  the  page, 
and  trace  the  line  and  column  until  they  meet,  and  you  will 
find  the  amount  in  dollars  and  cents. 

Example. — If  a  load  of  wood  contains  98  feet,  at  two  dol- 
lars and  a  half  per  cord — first  find  the  amount  of  96  feet, 
which  is  $1.88 ;  and  then  add  the  value  of  2  feet  (4  cents), 
making  $1.92.^   So  of  all  similar  examples. 

Should  the  price  per  cord  exceed  the  amount  in  the  pre- 
ceding table,  the  price  of  the  parts  may  be  found  by  adding 
or  doubling,  as  per  example,  for  $3.50  double  $1.75  ;  for 
$3.75  add  $2.00  and  $1.75  ;  for  $4.00  double  $2.00 ;  for 
$5.00  double  $2.50,  &c. 


FENCES. 


In  the  newer  portions  of  the  country,  where  land  is  cheap 
and  timber  abundant,  the  old-fashioned  zig-zag,  or  "  Vir- 
ginia  worm  fence, ^"^  still  prevails.  It  does  not  cost  one-third 
the  amount  required  for  good  post  or  board  fence.  Some 
are  constructed  altogether  of  rails,  without  any  bracing  or 
support  at  the  corners,  and  are,  of  course,  easily  thrown  down 
by  cattle  and  the  wind.  They  are,  however,  usually  braced 
in  one  of  the  following  modes : 

1.  By  stakes  and  riders — either  single  or  double  riders. 


126  FENCES. 

2.  By  upright  stakes,  opposite  each  other,  and  placed  in 
the  obtuse  corners,  driven  into  the  ground,  and  tied  at  the 
top  by  a  wire  or  withe. 

3.  By  upright  stakes  placed  in  the  acute  corners,  driven 
into  the  ground,  and  tied  at  the  top  as  above  described. 

4.  By  wedging  one  end  of  a  rail  into  the  acute  corner, 
and  letting  the  otlier  end  rest  on  the  ground. 

5.  By  placing  the  riders,  or  long  poles,  in  a  straight  line 
on  the  top  and  at  the  centre  of  the  fence,  and  then  placing 
upright  stakes  in  each  inner  corner,  between  the  rider  and 
the  fence,  the  lower  end  resting  on  the  ground  and  the  other 
wedged  tightly  between  the  top  and  the  rider. 

The  rails  for  this  species  of  fence  are  cut  different  lengths 
in  different  sections  of  the  country,  and,  indeed,  in  the  same 
section.  Much  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  timber,  and 
much  also  on  the  kind  of  ground  on  which  the  fence  is  to  be 
laid.  Some  are  cut  12  feet,  some  14,  and  some  even  16|- 
feet  or  1  rod  in  length.  The  usual  lengths,  however,  are  12 
and  14  feet. 

The  rails  are  laid  at  different  angles ;  some  deflecting  6 
feet,  some  7,  and  some  8  feet  from  a  right  line.  The  more 
they  deflect,  or  in  other  words,  the  crookeder  they  are  laid, 
the  firmer  the  fence  will  be  ;  but  more  rails  will  be  required 
and  more  space  occupied.  The  deflection  for  a  12  foot  rail 
is  usually  6  feet ;  for  a  14  foot  rail,  7  feet ;  and  for  a  rod 
rail,  8  feet.  A  foot  is  generally  allowed  at  each  end  for  the 
lap. 


FENCES. 


127 


Some  fences  are  built  5  rails  higb,  some  6,  and  some  7 — 
the  rider  making  an  additional  rail  high.  The  height,  as 
well  as  the  spaces  between  the  rails,  are  mostly  regulated  by 
statute  in  the  different  States.  The  majority  of  these  stat- 
utes require  the  fence  to  be  not  less  than  5  feet  high,  with 
interspaces  between  the  rails  of  not  more  than  4  inches,  to 
a  height  of  4  feet. 

The  number  of  rails,  stakes,  and  riders  required  to  build  a 
certain  amount  of  fence  has  hitlierto  been  pretty  much  guess- 
work; and  often  the  farmer,  before  he  can  finish  his  fence, 
has  to  quit  it,  and  go  and  split  more  rails,  or  gear  up  and 
haul  a  few  more  loads.  It  is  hoped  that  the  following  tables 
will  obviate  that  necessity,  by  enabling  him  to  tell  within  a 
few  rails  how  many  will  be  required  to  build  a  given  amount 
of  fence. 

Table,  showing  the  numher  of  rails,  stakes,  and  riders  re- 
quired for  each  10  rods  of  fence. 


Length 
of  raU. 

Deflec- 
tion from 
right  line 
Feet. 

Length 
of  panel 

Feet 

V  umber  1 

of  panei8     Number  of  raili  for  each  10  rodB. 

Number 
of  sUkes. 

Number  of 
riderg, 

Feet. 

Feet. 

5  rails  high. 

6  rails  high. 

7  rails  higb. 

(single.) 

12 

u 

16J 

6 

7 
8 

8 
10 
12 

20f 
16i 
13f 

1U3 

83 
69 

1-3 

99 
84 

144 
116 

95 

42 
34 

28 

21 
17 
14 

Note. — Should  the  number  of  rods  exceed  10,  the  requisite 
number  of  rails,  stakes,  and  riders  can  be  found  by  multiply- 
ing. For  instance,  should  the  length  of  fence  be  100  rods, 
multiply  the  above  number  by  10;  should  it  be  75  rods, 
multiply  the  above  number  by  7J ;  for  77  rods,  multiply  by 
7^^,  and  so  forth. 


128 


FENCES. 


Post  and  rail  fence. 

Post  and  rail  is  a  more  costly  fence,  but  much  better,  and 
in  the  end  more  economical.  There  is  not  such  a  waste  of 
either  timber  or  land. 

The  rails  are  also  cut  of  different  lengths  ;  some  10,  some 
12,  some  14,  and  some  16^  feet,  or  1  rod.  Formerly,  about 
6  inches  at  each  end  were  allowed  for  the  lap,  but  more  re- 
cently a  foot  has  been  allowed,  as  the  longer  the  lap  the 
stronger  and  firmer  the  fence.  They  are  from  5  to  8  rails 
high ;  posts  set  in  the  ground  from  2  to  3  feet. 

Table,  showing  the  number  of  rails  and  posts  required 
for  each  10  rods  of  post  and  rail  fence. 


Length  of 
rail-feet. 

Length  of 
panel— feet 

Number  of 
panels. 

Number  of 
posts. 

Number  of  rails  for  each  1 )  rods. 

5  rails  high. 

6  rails  high. 

7  railB  high. 

8  rails  high. 

10 

8 

204 

21 

1C3 

123 

144 

165 

12 

10 

16^ 

17 

83 

99 

116 

133 

U 

12 

13| 

14 

69 

84 

95 

109 

\^ 

14^ 

lll 

12 

57 

69 

SI 

93 

Note. — Should  the  length  exceed  10  rods,  the  additional 
number  of  posts  and  rails  may  be  found  by  multiplying,  as 
directed  in  the  note  to  the  preceding  table. 

Post  and  board  fence. 

Where  timber  is  plenty  and  saw-mills  abound,  or  where 
lumber  is  cheap,  post  and  board  fence  is  economical. 

The  boards  are  usually  sawed  16  feet  long,  and  the  posts 
set  8  feet  apart,  3  feet  in  the  ground. 

The  fence  is  usually  5  boards  high ;  the  bottom  or  first 
board  10  inches  wide;  the  second  8,  the  third  6,  and  the 


FENCES.  '  129 

fourth  and  fifth  5  inches  wide.     They  may  be  wider  or  nar- 
rower, as  cost,  taste,  or  use  may  dictate. 

The  first,  third,  and  fifth  boards  are  joined  on  one  post, 
and  the  second  and  fourth  joined  on  the  next  post. 

To  jmd  the  number  of  feet  of  hoards  required  for  each 
rod  of  jpost  and  hoard  fence. 

Rule. — Add  the  different  widths  of  the  boards,  in  inches, 
together,  and  divide  the  sum  by  12  for  the  width  in  feet ; 
then  multiply  the  width  by  16 J,  and  the  product  will  be  the 
number  of  feet,  board  measure,  required  for  each  rod  of 
fence. 

Example. — Required,  the  number  of  feet,  board  measure, 
for  each  rod  of  fence,  5  boards  high,  the  various  widths  of 
the  boards  being  10,  8,  7,  6  and  5  inches  ? 

Solution.  — 10+8  +  7  +  6  +  5  =  36-^12=3  ft.  xl6|=49J 
feet.     A71S. 

To  find  the  number  of  posts  required  for  a  given  length 
of  post  and  hoard  fence. 

Rule. — Reduce  the  number  of  rods  to  feet  by  multiplying 
by  16 J,  and  divide  the  product  by  the  number  of  feet  the 
posts  are  set  apart ;  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  posts 
required. 

Example. — Required,  the  number  of  posts  for  a  post  and 
board  fence  160  rods  long ;   posts  set  8  feet  apart  % 

Solution.— 160  x  16^=2640^8=330.     Ans. 

6* 


HEDGE   PLANTS. 

The  following,  for  the  cultivation  of  hedges,  is  the  con- 
densed experience  of  the  most  successful  and  practical  hedge- 
growers  in  the  United  States,  and  especially  in  the  West. 

Directions  for  Setting. — During  the  summer  or  fall 
thoroughly  manure,  plough  as  deep  as  possible  a  strip 
from  five  to  eight  feet  wide,  leave  a  dead  furrow  in 
the  line  where  the  hedge  is  to  be  set.  In  the  following 
spring  back  furrow  to  the  hedge-line,  then  harrow  down 
smooth.  Stake  the  ground,  and  by  means  of  a  line  make  a 
plain  mark,  then  with  a  spade  placed  at  right  angles  across 
the  mark,  push  the  blade  in  the  soil  to  its  full  length  at  an 
angle  of  about  forty-five  degrees.  Let  an  assistant  place  the 
plants  under  the  back  of  the  spade  on  the  line  of  the  mark, 
about  one  inch  below  the  depth  they  stood  in  the  nursery, 
and  about  eight  inches  apart.  Pack  the  ground  firmly 
around  the  plants,  and  mulch  the  ground  to  keep  moist. 
Cultivate  until  the  first  of  August.  Before  frost  in  the  fall, 
back  furrow  and  cover  with  coarse  manure  or  straw,  and  in 
the  spring  uncover  and  cultivate  as  before.  Replace  all 
missing  or  feeble  plants  with  strong  ones. 

TrimmiTig. — The  hedge  should  not  be  trimmed  until 
three  years  old,  when  one-half  or  two-thirds  should  be  cut 


HEDGE    PLAi^TS.  131 

nearly  off  close  to  the  ground  and  laid  down  at  an  angle  of 
thirty  degrees  from  the  ground.  Trim  once  a  year  in  July, 
and  do  noc  allow  the  hedge  to  exceed  twenty  inches  broad. 
The  fourth  year  in  the  spring,  before  the  buds  start,  take  ofl' 
about  one-half  the  last  year's  growth.  Leave  the  lower 
branches  a  little  longer  than  the  top,  and  aim  to  give  the 
hedge  some  regular  uniform  shape.  The  hedge  should  be 
allowed  to  gain  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  annually,  until 
it  has  reached  the  desired  height. 

To  Preserve  Plants  during  the  Winter. — Cut  a  trench 
in  a  dry  piece  of  ground  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees, 
place  the  bundles  in  the  trench,  and  cover  with  dirt  from  a 
new  trench  from  six  to  eight  inches  in  front,  and  so  continue 
until  all  are  trenched.  Cover  the  plants  two  inches  deep, 
firmly  packing  the  ground  around  them.  After  the  ground 
is  frozen  two  inches  deep,  cover  the  whole  with  straw  from 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches ;  after  which  cover  the  whole  bed 
with  dirt  about  a  foot  thick.  Encircle  with  a  ditch  so  that 
no  water  can  reach  the  plants.  Plants  can  also  be  kept  in  a 
cellar,  well  covered  in  sand,  but  be  careful  not  to  expose  to 
the  sun  or  dry  wind,  in  setting  in  the  spring. 

Setting  Evergreens. — Cultivate  and  set  as  before,  but  the 
ground  should  not  be  manured  within  six  months  of  setting 
the  plants.  Chip-dirt  or  rotten  leaves  are  preferable  for  a 
mulch. 

Hedge  Plants. — Osage  Orange. — The  Osage  Orange 
stands  at  the  head  of  the  list  of  hedge  plants.     It  is  much 


132  HEDGE   PLANTS. 

planted  where  fencing  timber  is  scarce,  in  the  latitude  of 
the  Middle  and  Southern  States.  It  is  hardy  and  grows 
vigorously,  and  its  thorns  are  absolute  proof  against  the  de- 
predations of  domestic  animals,  and  even  boys  retreat  from 
contact  with  them.  It  makes  a  beautiful  hedge  when  prop- 
erly pruned,  but  when  neglected  it  gets  beyond  all  control. 
In  the  Northern  and  Eastern  States,  it  is  liable  to  be  killed 
by  the  frost. 

Honey  Locust. — This  thorny,  vigorous,  and  hardy  plant 
has  no  superior  as  a  farm  hedge.  It  requires  two  annual 
prunings,  in  June  and  September,  to  keep  it  within  control. 
It  flourishes  as  far  north  as  Canada,  and  for  the  Middle  and 
Southern  States  it  yields  only  to  the  Osage  Orange.  It  is 
easily  propagated  by  setting  the  plants  about  six  inches  apart. 
Some  prefer  sowing  the  seed  on  the  line  of  the  proposed 
hedge. 

Buclcthom. — This  plant  is  a  native  of  America,  and 
would  be  one  of  the  best  hedge  plants  did  it  not  lack  a  sup- 
ply of  thorns. 

JPrivit. — This  thornless  shrub  is  easily  propagated  from 
cuttings,  and  thickens  well  when  set  in  a  hedge.  Its  foliage 
is  rich,  and  in  the  spring  it  is  decorated  with  an  abundance 
of  beautiful  small  white  flowers.  It  cannot  be  successfully 
cultivated  north  of  the  latitude  of  Philadelphia. 

Hawthorn. — The  hawthorn,  so  common  in  England,  does 
not  thrive  so  well  in  our  climate. 


HEDGE    PLANTS. 


133 


Evergreen  Hedges. — Norway  Spruce. — A  hedge  of  this 
beautiful  tree  should  be  set  about  four  or  five  inches  apart, 
and  the  plants  not  over  four  feet  high.  The  side  branches 
should  be  pruned,  and  the  leaders  cut  out.  Afterwards  it 
should  be  trimmed  the  same  as  other  hedges.  The  soil 
should  be  kept  rich  to  insure  a  vigorous  growth. 

Arbor  Vitm. — In  consequence  of  the  cheapness  of  the 
common  Arbor  Yitse,  for  an  ornamental  hedge,  it  has  super- 
seded all  others.  Though  inferior  to  the  Siberian  species, 
yet  it  will  be  a  long  time  before  it  will  yield  its  place  to  it. 
Being  hardy  and  sure  to  flourish  under  ordinary  treatment, 
it  is  a  valuable  hedge  plant. 

Hemlock. — The  hemlock,  when  properly  pruned,  makes  a 
thick  and  beautiful  hedge.  With  a  foliage  ever  of  the  richest 
green,  and  adapted  to  all  the  northern  latitudes,  as  a  hedge 
plant  it  has  no  superior  if  an  equal.'  Although  hardy,  it  is 
somewhat  difficult  to  transplant.  Select  a  rainy  day  when 
the  ground  is  wet,  being  careful  not  to  expose  the  roots  to 
the  light  or  air.  As  soon  as  planted  mulch  with  coarse 
manure  or  chip-dirt. 


WIRE   FENCES. 

Wire  fences  have  this  advantage  over  hedges  and  other 
fences :  they  take  up  but  little  space,  with  no  exhaustion  of 
the  soil,  are  not  blown  about  by  the  wind;  are  durable, 
economical,  and  make  a  good  protection  against  cattle, 
sheep,  and  other  animals.  For  enclosing  lawns  and  gar- 
dens, many  of  the  designs  offered  in  market  are  very  desir- 
able and  ornamental.  For  a  farm  fence,  such  as  any  farmer 
can  put  up,  annealed  wire  of  the  size  No.  6  or  8*  is  pre- 
ferable ;  for  the  protection  of  cattle  '^ve  wires  are  sufficient ; 
for  sheep  and  lambs,  seven  should  be  used. 

In  building  the  fence  a  post  six  inches  square  or  larger 
should  be  set  at  each  end,  and  securely  braced,  from  which 
to  stretch  the  wire;  the  intervening  posts  should  be  set 
from  eight  to  ten  feet  apart.  Through  these  holes  should 
be  bored  with  a  ;^-inch  brace-bit,  and  at  appropriate  dis- 
tances apart,  according  to  the  protection  required.  Instead 
of  putting  the  wires  through  the  posts,  they  are  often  fas- 
tened by  means  of  staples  made  of  the  same  material.  In 
putting  up  the  wires  they  should  be  stretched  as  tightly  as 
possible,  care  being  taken  in  splicing  that  they  be  well 
secured,  which  can  be  best  done  by  means  of  narrow  black- 
smith's tongs. 

Suitable  wire  can  be  bought  for  8  or  10  cents  per  pound, 
making  a  fence  of  six  wires  cost  about  40  cents  per  rod ; 
this  does  not  include  posts  and  labor  of  setting. 

*  The  size  of  wire  is  graded  from  No.  1,  and  upwards.  No.  9  is  the  com- 
mon telegraph  wire. 


HUMAN  STEENGTH. 

The  force  of  a  single  man,  unaided  by  machinery,  and 
working  to  the  best  advantage,  is  equivalent  to  the  raising 
of  70  lbs.  1  foot  per  second  for  ten  hours  in  a  day. 

The  maximum  jpower  of  a  strong  man,  exerted  for  2  J  min- 
utes, is  equivalent  to  18,000  lbs.  raised  one  foot  in  a  minute. 

A  man  of  ordinary  strength  exerts  a  force  of  30  lbs.  for 
10  hours  in  a  day  with  a  velocity  of  2^  feet  in  a  second, 
which  is  about  equal  to  4500  lbs.  raised  1  foot  in  a  minute. 

The  average  weight  of  men  is  150  lbs.  each. 

A  man  travels,  without  a  load,  on  level  ground,  for  8J 
hours  a  day,  at  the  rate  of  3^  miles  an  hour,  or  Z\\  miles 
per  day.     He  can  carry  111  lbs.  11  miles  in  a  day. 

A  porter  going  short  distances,  and  returning  unloaded, 
carries  135  lbs.  7  miles  in  a  day.  He  can  carry,  in  a  wheel- 
barrow, 150  lbs.  10  miles  a  day. 

An  average  strong  man  will,  for  a  short  period,  exert  a 
force  with  a — 


lbs. 
Drawing  knife equal  to  100 


An  auger,  both  hands . 
A  screw -driver,  1  hand. . 
A  bench-vice,  handle. . . . 
A  chisel,  vertical  pressure 
A  windlass 


lbs. 

Pincers,  compression equal  to  60 

100   A  hand-plane   "        50 

84  A  hand-saw "        36 

72  !  A  thumb- vice "        45 

72  i  A  brace-bit,  revolving "        16 

60^ 


HOESE  POWER. 

Before  the  invention  and  improvement  of  the  steam-en- 
gine, the  force  of  horses  was  very  extensively  used  as  a 
motive  power ;  and  although  its  application  to  machinery  is 
now  much  less  frequent,  it  is  still  resorted  to,  especially  in 
places  where  fuel  is  expensive.  For  ordinary  farm  labor,  it 
will  probably  never  be  superseded.  The  following  are  some 
of  the  more  important  facts  relating  to  the  horse  and  horse- 
power :^^ 

The  ordinary  work  of  a  horse  is  taken  at  22,500  lbs.  raised 
1  foot  in  a  minute,  for  8  hours  a  day. 

The  strength  of  a  horse  is  equivalent  to  that  of  5  men. 

A  draught-horse  can  draw  1600  lbs.  23  miles  a  day  on  a 
level  road,  weight  of  carriage  included. 

In  a  horse-mill,  he  moves  at  the  rate  of  3  feet  per  second 
on  a  track  25  feet  diameter,  and  with  the  machine  exerts  the 
power  of  4|-  horses. 

He  occupies  in  a  stall  a  front  of  4|-  feet  and  a  depth  of  10 
feet. 

The  average  weight  of  horses  is  1000  lbs.  each. 

A  horse  travels  400  yards,  at  a  walk,  in  4|-  minutes ;  400 
yards,  at  a  trot,  in  2  minutes ;  and  400  yards,  at  a  grallop, 
in  1  minute. 

A  horse  will  carry  250  lbs.  25  miles  a  day  of  8  hours. 


HORSE    POWER.  137 

A  horse  will  live  25  days  without  solid  food,  merely  drink- 
ing water.  He  will  live  17  days  without  either  eating  or 
drinking.  He  will  live  only  5  days  when  eating  solid  food, 
without  drinking. 

He  attains  his  full  growth  in  5  years,  and  will  live  25. 
His  average  life  is  16  years. 

Horse-power  as  applied  to  the  measurement  of  steam-en- 
gines and  waterfalls  was  first  applied  by  James  Watt,  the 
inventor  of  the  steam-engine.  From  a  series  of  experiments 
he  ascertained  that  the  average  strength  of  a  horse  was  suf- 
ficient to  raise  33,000  lbs.  one  foot  per  minute,*  and  this 
unit  has  been  adopted  in  this  country  and  in  England  as  a 
general  measure  of  power. 

A  waterfall  is  thus  said  to  have  a  horse-power  for  every 
33,000  lbs.  of  water  passing  a  given  point  per  minute  for 
each  foot  of  the  fall.  To  compute  the  power  of  a  w^ater- 
fall  is  given  the  following 

Rule. — Divide  the  continued  product  of  the  width,  the 
depth,  the  velocity  of  the  water  per  minute,  the  height  of 
the  fall,  and  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  water  (62 J^  lbs.) 
by  33,000. 

Example. — The  flume  of  a  mill  is  10  feet  wide,  the  water 
is  3  feet  deep,  the  velocity  is  100  feet  per  minute,  and  the 
fall  11  feet.     What  is  the  horse-power  of  the  fall  ? 

Operation.— (10  x3  x  100  x  11  x  621-)  ^  33,000  =  62J 
horse-power. 

*  This  is  done  by  means  of  compound  pulleys. 


138 


HORSE    POWER. 


The  power  of  a  steam-engine  is  estim  ated  by  the  following 

liuLE. — Divide  the  continued  product  of  the  area  of  the 

piston   in  inches,  the  mean   pressure  per  square  inch   in 

pounds,  the  length  of  the  stroke  in  feet,  and  the  number  of 

strokes  per  minute  by  33,000. 

Example. — The  area  of  the  piston  of  a  steam-engine  is  40 
inches,  the  pressure  is  60  lbs.  per  square  inch,  the  length  of 
the  stroke  is  3  feet,  and  it  makes  30  strokes  per  minute. 
What  is  the  horse-power  ? 

Operation.— (40  x  60  x  3  x  30)-^33,000=6J  horse-power 
(nearly). 

Water-wheels  lose  from  10  to  50  percent,  of  the  power,  and 
the  actual  power  of  the  steam-engine  is  less  than  that  indi- 
cated by  the  horse-power,  owing  to  a  loss  by  friction,  the 
amount  of  which  depends  upon  the  arrangement  of  the  en- 
gine and  the  perfection  of  the  workmanship. 

Table,  showing  the  labor  one  horse  is  able  to  j^erforrii  at 
different  rates  of  speed  on  canals^  railroads^  a/nd  turnpilces. 
Drawing  force,  83|  lbs. 


Speed  per  hour. 

Miles. 

Duration  of  day's 
work— hours. 

Useful  effect  for  1  day  in  tons,  drawn  1  mUe. 

On  canal — tons 

On  a  railroad— tons. 

On  a  turnpike— tons. 

2| 

lU 

520 

115 

14 

3 

8 

243 

92 

12 

? 

6 

154 

82 

10 

4J 

102 

72 

9 

5 

A 

52 

57 

7.3 

6 

2 

30 

48 

6 

7 

11 

19 

41 

5 

8 

12.8 

36 

4.5 

9 

\ 

9. 

32 

4. 

10 

» 

6.5 

28.8 

8.6 

HOESE    POWER. 


139 


Table,  shovnng  how  much  one  team  and  jplough  will  per- 
form in  a  day^  in  acres  and  tenths. 


Width  of 

Width  of 

Width  of 

Width  of 

Acres  and 

furrow  in 

Acres  and 

furrow  m 

Acres  and 

furrow  in 

Acres  and 

inches. 

tenths. 

inches. 

tenths. 

feet. 

tenths. 

feet. 

tenths. 

5 

1.0 

12 

2.4 

2 

4.8 

5i 

13.2 

6 

1.2 

14 

2.8 

H 

6.0 

6 

14.4 

1 

1.4 

16 

3.2 

3 

7.2 

6i 

15.6 

8 

1.6 

18 

3.6 

H 

8.4 

7 

16.8 

9 

1.8 

20 

4.0 

4 

9.6 

n 

18.0 

10 

2.0 

22 

4.4 

4i 

10.8 

8 

19.2 

11 

2.2 

5 

12.0 

Note, — The  above  table  is  constructed  on  the  presump- 
tion that  the  team  moves  at  the  rate  of  about  3  feet  per 
second,  or  2  miles  per  hour,  for  10  hours  per  day.  Horses 
and  mules  in  good  condition  will  do  tJiis 


FUEIGHTS— QUANTITY   OF   GOODS   WHICH 
COMPOSE  A  TON  IN  SHIPPING. 


Wharf  Scene  in  New  York. 


Frora  By-laws  of  the  Nevj   York  Chamber  of  Commerce. 

Resolved^  That  when  vessels  are  freighted  by  the  ton,  and 
no  special  agreement  is  made  between  the  owner  of  the 
vessel  and  freighter  of  the  goods,  respecting  the  proportion 
of  tonnage  which  each  particular  article  shall  be  computed 
at,  the  following  regulation  shall  be  the  standard  of  compu- 
tation : — 


FREIGHTS.  141 

That  the  articles,  the  bulk  of  which  shall  compose  a  ton, 
to  equal  a  ton  of  heavy  materials,  shall  be  in  weight  as  fol- 
lows :  1568  lbs.  of  coffee  in  casks,  1830  lbs.  in  bags j  1120 
lbs.  of  cocoa  in  casks,  1307  lbs.  in  bags. 

952  lbs.  pimento  in  casks,  1110  in  bags. 

Eight  barrels  of  flour,  196  lbs.  each. 

Six  barrels  of  beef,  pork,  tallow,  pickled  fish,  pitch,  tar, 
and  turpentine. 

Twenty  hundred  pounds  of  pig  and  bar  iron,  potashes, 
sugar,  logwood,  fustic,  Nicaragua  wood,  and  all  heavy  dye- 
woods,  rice,  honey,  copper  ore,  and  all  other  heavy  goods. 

Sixteen  hundred  pounds  of  coffee,  cocoa,  and  dried  cod- 
fish, in  bulk,  and  twelve  hundred  pounds  of  dried  codfish  in 
casks  of  any  size. 

Six  hundred  pounds  of  ship  bread  in  casks,  seven  hundred 
in  bags,  and  eight  hundred  in  bulk. 

Two  hundred  gallons  (wine-measure),  reckoning  the  full 
contents  of  the  casks,  oil,  wine,  brandy,  or  any  kind  of 
liquors. 

Twenty-two  bushels  of  grain,  peas,  or  beans,  in  casks. 

Thirty-six  bushels  of  grain  in  bulk. 

Thirty-six  bushels  of  European  salt. 

Thirty-one  bushels  of  salt  jfrom  the  West  Indies. 

Twenty-nine  bushels  of  sea-coal. 

Forty  feet  (cubic  measure)  of  mahogany,  square  timber. 


142  FREIGHTS. 

oak  plank,  pine,  and  other  boards,  beavers,  furs,  peltry,  bees- 
wax, cotton,  wool,  and  bale  goods  of  all  kinds. 

One  hogshead  of  tobacco,  and  ten  hundred  pounds  of  dry 
hides. 

Eight  hundred  pounds  of  China  raw  silk,  ten  hundred 
pounds  of  net  bohea,  and  800  green  tea. 


RELATIVE  MINT  VaLUE  OF  FOREIGN  COIN. 

Names  of  Coina.  3^    $  ct«.  m 

United  States.— Eagle,  coined  before  July  31, 1834  (shares  in  prop.)  10  66  8 

Austrian  Dominions. — Souverein 3  37  7 

Double  Ducat 4  53  9 

Hungarian  Ducat 2  29  6 

Bavabia. — Carolin 4  95  7 

Max  d'or,  or  Maximillian 3  31  g 

Ducat , 2  27  5 

BiBNE. — Ducat,  (double  in  proportion) 1  98  6 

Pistole 4  64  2 

Brazil.— Johannes,  ( J  in  proportion) 17    6  4 

Dobraon 32  70  6 

Dobra 17  30  1 

Moidore,  (J  in  proportion) 6  55  7 

Crusade 63  6 

Brunswick. — Pistole,  (double  in  proportion) 4  64  8 

Ducat 2  23  0 

Cologne.— Ducat 2  26  7 

Colombia. — Doubloons , 15  63  5 

Denmark. — Ducat,  Current 1  81  2 

Ducat,  Specie 2  26  7 

Christian  d'or 4  02  1 

East  Indies.— Rupee,  Bombay,  1818 7  09  6 

Eupee,  Madras,  1818 7  11  0 

Pagoda,8tar .t..ftttt t 1  79  8 

Enoland.— Guinea,  (J  in  proportion) 6  07  6 

Sovereign,  (J  in  proportion) 4  84  6 

Seven  Shilling  piece 1  69  8 

Feancb. — Double  Louis,  coined  before  1786 9  69  7 

Louis,  do 4  84  6 

Double  Louis,  coined  since  1786 9  15  3 

Louis,  do.  do 4  57  6 

Double  Napoleon,  or  40  francs • 7  70  2 

Napoleon,  or  20  francs 3  86  1 

Frankfobt  on  the  Main. — Ducat 2  27  9 

Geneva.— Pistole,  old 3  98  6 

Pistole,  new , S  44  4 

Genoa.— Sequin 2  30  2 

Hamburgh  — Ducat,  (double  in  proportion) 2  27  9 

Hanover. — Double  George  d'or,  (single  in  proportion) 7  87  9 

Ducat • 2  29  6 

GoldFlorin,  (double  in  proportion) 1  67  0 

Holland— Double  Byder 12  20  5 

Ryder 6  04  S 

Ducat 2  27  5 

Ten  Guilder  piece,  (5  do.  in  proportion) 4  03  4 

Malta. — Double  Louis ••••••...  9  27  8 

Louis 4  85  2 

Demi  Louis , 2  33  6 

Mexico.— Doubloons,  (fractions  in  proportion) 15  53  6 

Milan.— Sequin 2  29  0 

Doppia,  or  Pistole. 8  80  7 

Forty  Livre  Piece,  1808 7  74  2 

Naples.— Six  Ducat  Piece,  1783. > ''5  24  9 

Two  do.,  or  Sequin,  1762, 1  59  1 

Three  do.,  or  Oncetta,  1818 2  49  0 

NaTHBRLANDS  — Gold  Lion,  or  Fourteen  Florin  Piece 6  04  6 

Ten  Florin  Piece,  1820 , 4  01  9 


144  RELATIVE   MINT   VALUE    OF    FOREIGN    COINS, 

Names  of  Coins.  f  etc.  m 

Paema.— Quadruple  Pistole,  (double  in  proportion) « . . . .  16  62  8 

Pistole,  or  Doppia,  1787, 4  19  4 

do.             do.,      1796 4  13  6 

Maria  Theresa,  1818 3  86  1 

PiERMONT.— Pistole,  coined  since  1785,  (J  in  proportion) 6  41  1 

Sequin,  (^  in  proportion) 2  28  0 

Carlino,  coined  since  1785,  (J  in  proportion) 27  34  0 

Piece  of  Twenty  Francs,  called  Marengo 3  66  4 

Poland.— Ducat 2  27  5 

PoaTUQAL. — Dobraon 32  70  & 

Dobra 17  30  1 

Johannes 17  06  4 

Moidore,  (^  in  proportion) 6  55  7 

Piece  of  16  Testoons.  or  1600  Rees 2  12  1 

Old  Crusado,  of  400  Eees 85  5 

New    do.,            480  do 63  5 

Milree,  coined  in  1775 78  0 

Prussia.— Ducat,  1748 2  27  9 

Ducat,  1787 2  26  7 

Frederick,  double,  1769 7  95  6 

do.            do.      1800 7  95  1 

do.        single,    1778 3  99  7 

do.            do.      1800 3  97  5 

EoMB  —Sequin,  coined  since  1760 2  25  1 

Scudo  of  Republic 15  81  1 

Russia.- Ducat,  1796 2  29  7 

Ducat,  1763 2  26  7 

Gold  Ruble,  1756 96  T 

do.         1799 73  7 

Gold  Poltin,  1777 36  5 

Imperial,       1801 7  82  9 

Half  do.,       1801 3  93  3 

Sardinia.— Carlino,  (half  in  proportion) 9  47  2 

Saxony.— Ducat,  1784 .  2  26  7 

Ducat,  1797 2  27  9 

Augustus,  1754 3  92  6 

do.,        1784 3  97  4 

Sicily.— Ounce,  1761 2  50  4 

Double  Ounce,  1758 5  04  4 

Spain.— Doubloon,  1772,  (double  and  fractions  in  proportion) 16  02  8 

Doubloon 16  53  5 

Pistole 3  88  4 

Coronilla,  Gold  Dollar,  or  Vintem,  1801 93  3 

Sweden.— Ducat 2  23  5 

Switzerland. — Pistole  of  Helvetic  Republic,  1800 4  66  0 

Treves.— Ducat 2  26  7 

Turkey. — Sequin  Fonducili,  or  Constantinople,  1773 1  86  8 

do.,                                            1789 184  8 

Half  Misseir,  1818 52  1 

Sequin  Fonducili 1  83  0 

Yeermeerblekblek 3  02  8 

Tuscany  — Zechino,  or  Sequin 2  31  8 

Ruspone  of  the  kingdom  of  Etruria 6  93  8 

Venice.    Zechino,  or  Sequin,  (fractions  in  proportion) 2  31  0 

WiRTEMBURQ.— Carolin 4  89  8 

Ducat 2  23  6 

Zurich.— Ducat,  (double  and  half  in  proportion) 2  26  T 


UNITED   STATES  OR  FEDERAL  MONEY. 


stamping  Coin  at  the  Unitefl  States  Mint. 

Money  is  value,  or  the  representative  of  value,  used  for 
the  purposes  of  exchange.  In  different  countries,  at  dif- 
ferent times,  various  articles  have  been  used  for  money, 
such  as  oxen,  pieces  of  leather  stamped,  shells,  wampum, 
iron,  nails,  &c.  Gold  and  silver,  at  present,  are  used 
almost  exclusively  for  money.  They  are  called  precious 
metals. 

Paper  money  is  a  substitute  for  coin. 

Uncoined  gold  and  silver  is  called  'hxtUion. 

Coin  is  a  piece  of  metal  of  known  weight  used  for  money, 
the  value  of  which  is  stamped  on  it. 


146 


UNITED    STATES    OK   FEDERAL   MONEY. 


Currency  is  the  money  of  circulation. 

Tokens  are  coins  whose  intrinsic  value  is  below  that 
assigned  tliem  by  law.  Such  coins  are  said  to  be  coins  in 
hillion. 

United  States  or  Federal  money  is  a  decimal  currency. 

Table. 
10  mills  (m.)  1  cent     ct. 
10  cents  1  dime   d.        100  mills. 

10  dimes  1  dollar  $       1000     '•        100  cents. 

10  dollars        1  eagle  E.    10000     "      1000  cents  100  dimes. 

Coins.— The  gold  coins  are  the  dovhle-eagle,  eagle,  half- 
eagle,  quarter-eagle,  three-dollar  piece,  and  dollar. 


Notes.— 1.  The  fifty-dollar  piece  is  not  a  legal  coin.    The 


UNITED    STATES    OK    FEDERAL    MONEY, 


147 


copper  half-cent  is  no  longer  coined.     The  mill  is  not  a 
coin. 

I  2.  Gold  coins  contain  9  parts  of  gold  and  1  part  of  an 

alloy  of  silver  and  copper. 

3.  The  silver  coins  are  the  dollar^  half-dollar^  quarter' 
dollar^  dime^  half -dime  ^  and  three-cent  jpiece. 


4.  Silver  coins  contain  9  parts  silver  and  1  part  cop- 
per, except  the  three-cent  piece,  which  is  3  parts  silver 
and  1  part  copper. 

5.  The  nickel  coins  are  the  cent^  the  new  three-cent^  and 
new  fve-cent pieces. 


148  UNITED    STATES    OK    FEDERAL    MONEY. 

6.  The  nickel  cent  contains  88  parts  copper  and  12  parts 
nickel. 

7.  The  copper  coins  are  the  cent  and  two-cent  j[deces. 


8.  The  two-cent  and  cent  pieces  are  made  of  nickel  and 
copper. 

The  term  dollar  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the 
German  "  thaler,"  pronounced  td-ler. 

The  term  dime  means  ten.  cent  a  hundred,  and  rniU  a 
thousand. 

The  origin  of  the  dollar-mark  is  uncertain  ;  some  think  it 
the  combination  of  U.  S.,  others  that  it  is  an  imitation  of 
the  dollars  and  scroll  on  the  "  pillar-dollar." 

1  eagle  (gold)  weighs  258  troy  grains. 
1  dollar  (silver)    "       412.5     " 
1  cent  (copper)    "       168        " 
23.2  grains  of  pure  gold=$1.00. 

Gold  coin  of  the  United  States,  prior  to  1834,  like  that 
of  England, =88. 8  cents  per  dwt.  By  act  of  Congress  of 
1834,  its  value  was  made  94.8  cents  per  dwt.  The  old 
United   States  Eagle,  coined   previous   to   1834,  is  worth 

$10.66-8. 


ENGLISH   MONEY. 


English  or  Sterling  Money  is    the   currency  of  Great 
Britain.  * 

Table. 

4  farthings  (far.  or  qr.)  make  1  penny,  marked  d. 

12  pence 


s. 


20  shillings 


"      1  shilling,  " 

"      1  pound  or  sovereign,  £,  sov. 
21  shillings  "      1  guinea,  marked  guin. 

Coins. — The  gold  coins  are  the  sovereign  (£1),  and  the 
lialf-sovereign  (10s.). 


The  silver  coins  are  the  crown  (5s.),  the  half-crown 
(2s.  ^^>j,  the  florin  (2s.),  the  shilling  (12d.),  sixpe7iny-piece 
(6d.),  and  threepenny-piece  (3d.). 


150 


ENGLISH    MONEY. 


The  bronze  coins  are  the  penny,  half -penny,  SLud  farthing. 
Fartliings  are  generally  written  as  fractions  of  a  penny, 
thus:   1  far.=^d. ;  2  far.=:|  or  i;  3  far.=:|. 


Canadian  currency  is  decimal,  and  the  denominations  are 
the  same  as  Federal  money. 

The  franc  is  the  unit  of  the  French  decimal  currency, 


and  is  worth 
centimes. 


ENGLISH    MONEY.  151 

,186.     The  denominations  are  francs  and 


Notes.— 1.  The  s^nnbol  £  stands  for  the  Latin  word  lihra^ 
a  pound  ;  s.  for  solidus,  a  shilling ;  d,  for  denarius,  a  penny ; 
qr.  for  quadrans,  a  quarter. 

2.  The  term  sterlifig  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from 
Easterling,  a  name  formerly  given  to  the  early  German 
traders. 

3.  The  term  farthing  is  derived  from  "  four  things,"  de- 
noting the  divisions  on  the  old  English  penny. 


AYOIEDUPOIS  WEIGHT. 


P  ^  mtMkI 


Avoirdupois  weight  is  used  for  all  ordinary  purposes. 


Tablk. 


16  drams 

(dr.) 

16  oz. 

25  lb. 

4  qr. 

20  ewt. 

100  lb. 

1  ounce, 

marked  oz. 

1  pound, 

"       lb.       i 

1  quarter, 

"        qr. 

1  hundredweight, 

"       cwt. 

1  ton, 

u         ip 

1  cental, 

"       c.        i 

AVOLBDUPOIS    WEIGHT. 


153 


T.      cwt.       qr.  lb. 

1=20=80=2000 

1=  4=  100 

1=     25 


lb.       oz.         dr.  gr.* 

1  =  16=256=7000 

1=  16=437^ 

1  =  27H 


Notes. — 1.  The  gross  ton  of  2240  lbs.  was  formerly  in 
common  use,  but  is  now  seldom  used  except  at  the  United 
States  Custom  House  and  at  the  Pennsylvania  coal  mines. 

2.  Butter  is  usually  packed  for  market  in  pails  or  firkins, 
which  hold  from  50  to  lOU  pounds. 

3.  The  term  avoirdupois  is  derived  from  the  French 
"  avoir  du  poids,"  meaning  goods  of  weight.  Cwt.  is  formed 
from  <?.,  centuin^  wt.^  weight. 

4.  Most  of  the  States  have  adopted  the  following 


Table  of 

Miscellaneous  Weights. 

196 

lbs. 

make  \ 

L  barrel  of  flour. 

200 

(( 

"      1 

ii 

beef,  pork,  or  fish. 

280 

a 

"      ] 

ii 

salt  at  N.  Y.  Salt  Works. 

32 

u 

"      ] 

I  bushel  of  oats. 

48 

u 

"      ] 

ii 

barley. 

56 

(4 

"      ] 

ii 

corn  or  rye. 

60 

(( 

u 

a 

wheat. 

60 

u 

"    ] 

ii 

beans. 

14 

u 

ii 

a 

blue-grass-seed. 

46 

u 

ii 

I        a 

castor-beans. 

60 

u 

"    1 

a 

clover-seed. 

56 

a 

"    ] 

ii 

flax-seed. 

44 

a 

."    ^ 

ii 

hemp-seed. 

*  Note — The  exact  weight  of  an  avoirdupois  dram  is  21^{  troy  grains. 

7* 


154 


AVOIRDUPOIS    WEIGHT. 


Avoirdupois  Weight  Illustrated. 


i9 


1  firkin. 


1  barrel. 


1  barrel. 


1  barrel. 


1  bushel. 


1  biisbel. 


1  buKbel. 


1  busliel. 


AVOIKDLPOLS    WEIGHT.  155 

60  lbs.  make  1  barrel  of  peas. 

60    "  ''     1      "  potatoes. 

45    "  "      1      "  timothy-seed. 

57    "  "      1      "  onions. 

28    "  "1      "  apples  or  peaches  (dried). 

50    "  "     1      ''  salt. 

A  sack  of  wool  is  22  stone,  that  is,  14  lbs.  to  the  stone, 
308  lbs. 

A  pach  of  wool  is  17  stone  2  lbs. =240  lbs. — a  pack  load 
for  a  horse.  I 

A  truss  of  hay  is,  new,  00  lbs. ;  old,  50  lbs. ;  straw,  40 

lbs.     A  load  of  hay  is  36  trusses.     A  hale  of  hay  is  300  lbs. 

A  firkin  of  hutter  was  formerly  56  lbs. 

A  hale  of  cotton  is  400  lbs.,  but  it  is  put  up  in  different 

States  varying  from  280  to  720  lbs.     Sea  Island  cotton  is 

put  up  in  sacks  of  300  lbs. 


i  I 


TROY  WEIGHT. 


Troy  weight  is  used  in  weighing  gold,  silver,  and  jewels, 
and  in  philosophical  experiments. 

Table. 


24  grains  (gr.)      make  1  pennyweight, 
20  pwt.  "       1  ounce, 

12  oz.  "       1  pound, 


3|-  grains 


marked  pwt. 
"         oz. 
"        lb. 


1  carat  (diamond  wt.)  " 


Scale  of  Comparison. 


lb. 

oz.                dwt. 

gr. 

1      = 

12    =  240 

=  5760 

1    =     20 

=    480 

1 

=      24 

Ik. 

=        H 

TROY    WEIGHT.  157 


24  grs.  480  grs.  5760  grs. 

Notes. — 1.  A  carat  is  a  Aveight  of  about  3.2  grains, 
and  is  used  by  jewellers  to  weigh  diamonds.  The  term 
carat  is  also  used  to  denote  the  fineness  of  gold.  When  gold 
contains  18  parts  pure  gold  and  6  parts  alloy,  which  is  usu- 
ally silver  and  copper,  it  is  said  to  be  18  carats  fine.  Gold 
14  carats  fine  contains  14  parts  pure  gold  and  10  parts 
alloy,  ifec. 

2.  The  term  Troy  is  derived  from  Troyes,  where  the 
weight  was  first  introduced  into  Europe,  about  the  12th 
century. 

3.  The  term  pennyweight  is  derived  from  the  weight  of 
the  old  silver  penny.  The  term  grain  is  derived  from  the 
custom  of  using  the  grains  of  wheat,  24  of  which  were  taken 
to  determine  the  weight  of  a  pennyweight. 

4.  The  symbol  oz.  is  derived  from  the  Spanish  word  onza,^ 
an  ounce ;  Ih.  is  from  the  Latin  libra,  a  pound. 

5.  The  standard  unit  of  weight  is  the  troy  pound.  It 
equals  the  weight  of  22. 79 -feu.  in.  of  distilled  water  at  the 
temperature  of  39°  83'  F.,  the  barometer  being  at  30  in. 


APOTHECARIES'  WEIGHT. 


Apothecaries'  weight  is  used  in  preparing  prescriptions, 
but  drugs  and  medicines  are  bought  and  sold  by  avoirdupois 
weight. 

Table. 
20  grains  (gr.)         1  scruple, 
3  scruples  1  drachm, 

8  drachms  1  ounce, 

12  ounces  1  pound, 


marked  sc.  or  3. 

"         dr.  or  3  . 

"         oz.  or  3  , 

"         lb.  or  lb. 


apothecakies    fluid  measure. 

Scale  of  Comparison. 

fi)      !       3        3         gr. 

1  =  12=.96  =  288  =  5760 

1=   8=   24=   480 

1=     3=     60 

1=     20 


159 


APOTHECARIES'  FLUID  MEASURE. 


Apothecaries'  fluid  measure  is  used  for  measuring  liquids 
in  preparing  medical  prescriptions. 


60  minims  (tti) 
8  fluid  drachms 

16  fluid  ounces 
8  pints 


Table. 

1  fluid  drachm,        marked  f  3  , 
1.  fluid  ounce,  "         f  1 . 

1  pint,  "         O. 

1  gallon  (wine  meas.)  "        Cong. 

Note. — 1.  The  pound,  ounce,  and  grain  are  the  same  as 
in  troy  weight,  the  ounce  being  diflerently  subdivided. 

2.  The  symbols  are  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  in- 
scriptions upon  the  ancient  monuments  of  Egypt. 

3.  One  minim  equals  one  drop. 


LIQUID    OK  WINE   MEASUKE. 


Liquid  measure  is.  of  course,  used  in  measuring  liquids. 


Tajjle. 


4:  gills  (gi.) 

2  pints 

4  quarts 

31^  gallons 


1  pint, 
1  quart, 
1  gallon, 
1  barrel. 


2     barrels  or  63  gallons  1  hogshead, 


marked  pt. 
qt. 
"         gal. 
bbl. 
"        hhd. 


liquid  or  wine  measure.                       161 
Scale  of  Comparison. 

Wi?ie  Memure.  Dry  Measure. 

gal.     qt.     pt.        gi.      cu.  in.  bu,     pk.       qt.          pt.          cu.  in. 

1=4=8=32=231  l=4:=32=64:=2150f  nearly. 

1=2=  8=57}  1=  8=16=  537^       " 

1=  4=28|  1=  2=     67^      " 


Note. — 1.  The  denominations  barrel  and  hogshead  are 
used  in  estimating  the  capacity  of  cisterns,  reservoirs,  vats,  &c, 

2.  The  barrel,  hogshead,  tierce,  pipe,  butt  and  tun,  are  the 
names  of  casks,  which  are  usually  gauged,  having  the  num- 
ber of  gallons  they  hold  marked  on  them. 

3.  Ale  or  beer  measure,  formerly  used  in  measuring 
beer,  ale,  and  milk,  is  now  seldom  used. 

4.  1  gallon  of  pure  water  weighs  nearly  8^  lb.  avoirdupois, 
hence  a  pint  weighs  about  a  pound. 

5.  The  standard  unit  of  wine  measure  is  the  gallon,  which 
contains  231  cubic  inches. 

The  Imperial,  or  British  gallon,  contains  277.274  cubic 
inches. 


DRY  MEASURE. 


Dry  measure  is  used  in  measuring  vegetables  and  articles 


not  fluid. 


2  pints  (pt. 
8  quarts 
4  pecks 
36  bushels 


1  quart, 
1  peck, 
1  bushel, 
1  chaldron, 


qt. 
pk. 
bu. 
cald. 


Notes. — The  standard  bushel  is  the  Winchester,  which 
contains  2150.42  cubic  inches,  or  77.627  lbs.  avoirdupois  of 
distilled  water  at  its  maximum  density. 

Its  dimensions  are  18J  inches  diameter  inside,  19^  inches 


DRY    MEASURE. 


163 


outside,  and  8  inches  deep,  and  when  heaped  to  a  cone  6 
inches  high,  contains  2748  cubic  inches. 

The  Imperial  or  British  bushel  contains  2218  cubic 
inches,  so  that  32  of  their  bushels  are  equal  to  38  of  ours. 

Heaping  Measure. — Potatoes,  turnips  and  esculent  roots, 
apples  and  other  fruits,  raeal  and  bran,  corn  on  the  ear, 
and  in  some  States,  oats,  are  sold  by  the  heaping  bushel 
measure. 

Table  of  Comparison  of  the  Measures  of  OAPAcrrY. 

1  gallon  or  4  qt.  wine  measure  contains  231  cubic  inches. 
^  pk.  or  4  qt.         dry  measure  "         268|  " 

1  gallon  or  4  qt.   beer  measure         "         282  " 


1  bushel 


dry  measure 


2150i 


In    England    the   following   weights   and    measures   are 
sometimes  used  : 


WEIGHT. 

R  pounds  —  1  stone,  butchers'  meat. 

7  pounds  =1  clove. 

2  cloves=l  stone  common  articles. 

2  stone  =  1  tod  of  wool. 
6|  tods  =  1  wey         " 

2  weys  =  l  sack       " 

12  sacks=rl  last       " 

240  pounds  =  1  pack  " 


CLOTH    MEASURE. 

1\  inches  =  1  nail. 

4    nails  =1  quarter. 

4    quarters  =  1  yard. 

3    quarters  =  ]  Flemish  elL 

6    quarters  =  1  English  ell. 

6    quarters  =  1  French  ell. 

4j%  quarters =1  Scotch  elL 


DRY    MEASURE. 

2  quarts  =  1  pottle. 

2  bushels  =  1  strike. 

2  strikes  =  1  coom. 

2  cooms  =  l  quarter. 
5  quarters  =:1  load. 

3  bushels =1  sack. 

36    bushels  =  1  chaldron. 

WINE    MEASURE. 

18  U.  S  gal  =1  runlet. 
25  Eng.  gal.  or)  _,  . 
42    U.S.  gal.       f-i  tierce. 

2    tierces  =  1  puncheon. 
52^  Eng,  gal.  or  /       ,  ,        ,      , 
63    U.S.gaL      [=1  hogshead. 

2    hogsheads  =  1  pipe. 

2    pipes  =1  tun. 

7^  Eng.  gal.  =  l  firkin  of  beer. 

4  firkins =1  barrel  « 


164 


DRY    MEASURE. 


Table  of  the  Comparison  of  Weights,  &c. 


1  U.  S.  pound  Troy=3  5760  grs.  Troy. 

1  Eng.  pound  Troy  =5760 

1  pound  Apoth.      =5760 

1  U.  S.  pound  Av. 

1  Eng.  pound  Av. 

144  pounds  Av. 

1  French  gramme 

1  U.  S.  yard 


=7000    " 

=  7000    " 

=  175  lb. 

=  15.433  grs.  Troy. 

=  36  inches. 


1  English  yard =36  inches. 
1  French  metre=39.368  + inches. 
1  U.  S.  bushel  =2150.42 +  cu.  in. 
1  Eng.        "       =2218.19+     " 
1  U.  S.  gallon    =231. 
1  Eng.       "        =277.26+       •' 
1  French  litre    —61.533+       " 
1  French  are     =11 9. 664  sq.  yds. 


SQUARE  MEASURE. 


Square  measure  is  used  in  calculating  areas  or  surfaces, 
as  of  land,  lumber,  painting,  paving,  vfec. 


144    square 

9    square  feet 
80^  square  yards 
40    square  rods 

4    roods 
640    acres 


Table. 

inches  (sq.  in.)  make  1  square  foot, 
^^^^'  "      1  square  yard, 


1  square  rod, 

1  rood,  or  qr.  acre, 

1  acre, 

1  sq.  mile  or  section, 


marked 

Lsq. 

ft. 

" 

sq. 

yd. 

" 

sq. 

rd. 

P. 

<i 

R. 

(( 

A. 

(( 

sq. 

m., 

sec. 

166 


SQUARE    MEASURE. 


Scale  of  Ck)MPARi80N. 

A.      R.  p.  sq.  yds.  sq.  ft.  sq.  in. 

1=4=160=:4840  =43560  =6272640. 

1=  40=1210  =10890  =1568160. 

1=     30J=     272J=     39204. 

1  =         9  =       1296. 

1   =         144. 

Note. — Artificers  usually  estimate  tlieir  work — 1.  In 
glazing  and  stone-cutting,  by  the  square  foot.  2.  In  paint- 
ing, plastering,  paper-hanging,   &c.,  by  the  square  yard. 

3.  In  flooring,  roofing,  slating,  &c.,  by  the  100  square  feet. 

4.  In  bricklaying,  by  the  thousand  bricks,  by  the  square 
yard,  and  100  feet. 

The  painting  of  mouldings,  cornices,  &c.,  is  estimated  by 
measuring  the  entire  surface. 

When  bricklaying  is  estimated  by  square  measure,  the 
work  is  understood  to  be  12  inches  thick. 

Surveyor's  square  measure  is  used  in  finding  tlie  area  of 
land. 

Table. 

625  square  links  (sq.  1.) 

16  sq.  rods 

10  sq.  chains 
640  acres 

36  sq.  miles  (six  miles  square) 


ake  1  sq.  rod, 

marked 

I  sq.  rd. 

"       1  sq.  chain, 

u 

sq,  ch 

"      1  acre, 

" 

A 

"      1  sq.  mile, 

" 

sq.  mi. 

"      1  township, 

" 

Tp. 

LONG    MEASURE. 


Long  measure  is  used  for  distances,  &q. 

Table. 
12  lines  or  3  t>arley-corus         I  inch, 

1  foot, 
1  yard, 
1  rod, 
1  furlong. 


12  inches 
3  ft. 

H  yd. 

40  rd. 
8  fur. 


1  mile. 


marked  ft. 
''       yd. 
"       rd. 
"       fur. 
"       mi. 


Scale   of  Comparison. 


mi.     fur.       rod.  yd. 

1  =  8=320=1760 

lz=  40=  220 

1  = 

1 


H= 


ft.  in. 

5280  =63360 
660  =   7920 
16J=     198 
=       3  =       36 
1  =       12 


SURVEYORS'  MEASURE. 

Gimter's  chain 

is  used  by  land  surveyors.     It  is  4  rods  or 

66  feet  long,  and  contains  100  links. 

1 
Table. 

25  links  (li.)                      1  rod,                     rd. 
4  rods                               1  chain,                   ch. 

80  chains 

1  mile,                     mi. 

Table  of 

i 
Miscellaneous  Linear  Measure. 

3  inches 

4  inches 
9  inches 
3  feet 
3.28  feet 
6  feet 

1      880  fathoms 

3  geographical 
60           " 
69J  statute 

1  palm. 

1      ^  o  r>  rl          S  Used  in  measuring  the  height  of  horses 
I   nana.        ^attheshouWer. 

1  span. 

1  pace  or  step.                                       ! 
1  metre.                                                 j 
1  fathom.       ^^  ^            .    .  .^,    .           f 

^          .,                   V  Used  m  measuring  depths  at  sea.          i 

1  mile.         )                                            t 
miles     1  league.                                           ^     j 

a           j    1    degree.       ^  Ollongi^ude  m  the  equator. 

Note. — A  hair' 

s  breadth  is  the  48th  part  of  an  inch. 

A    ship's  cable 

,  is  a  chain,  usually  about  120  fathoms 

or  720  feet  long,  ] 

lence  the  term  "  cable  length  "  in  nautical 

language  denotes  about  that  distance. 

Notes. — 1.  A  knot  is  a  nautical  or  geographical  mile. 

Thus,  the  phrase, 

"  thirteen  knots  an  hour,"  means  thirteen    |j 

geographical  miles  an  hour.                                                            jj 

ii 

CLOTH    MEASURE.  169 

2.  1  English  mile  equals  5280  feet,  and  1  nautical,  or 
geographical  mile,  equals  6086  feet. 

3.  The  geographic  mile  equals  about  1.15  English  miles; 
the  German  short  mile,  about  3.9  English  miles ;  the  Ger- 
man long  mile,  about  5.75  English  miles  ;  the  Prussian  mile 
about  4.7  English  miles  ;  the  Spanish  common  league,  about 
4.2  miles ;  and  the  Spanish  judicial  league  about  2.6  miles. 

4.  Measures  of  length  were  at  first  derived  from  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  body,  as  the  finger^  Jiand,  the  span^  or 
the  length  of  the  thumb  and  middle  finger  extended ;  ciibit, 
or  the  length  of  the  forearm  ;  and  ihefcUhoniy  or  the  length 
of  the  two  arms  extended. 


CLOTH   MEASURE. 

Cloth  measure  is  used  by  merchants  in  the  sale  of  cloth, 
ribbons,  laces,  &c. 

Table. 

2  sixteenths  (16th)  1  eighth,  marked  8th,  ^  yd. 

2  eighths  1  quarter,  "       9.^-)  i  yd- 

2  quarters  1  half,  ''       hlf.,  ^  yd. 

4  quarters  or  2  halves  1  yard,  "       yd. 

Note. — The  old  system  of  measuring  cloth  is  not  now 
used.  By  it  each  yard  is  divided  into  4  quarters,  and  each 
quarter  into  4  nails,  a  nail  being  ^\  inches.  3  quarters  make 
a  Flemish  ell,  5  quarters  an  English  ell,  and  6  quarters  a 
French  ell. 

8 


CUBIC   MEASITKE. 


Table. 


1728  cubic  inches  (cu.  in.) 
27  cubic  feet 

40  cubic  ft.  of  round  timber  or 
50  cubic  feet  of  hewn  timber 
16  cubic  feet 
8  cord  feet  or  ) 
128  cubic  feet     f 

24|  cubic  feet 


1  cubic  foot, 
I  cubic  .yard, 

marked 

cu.  ft. 
cu.  yd. 

1  ton  or  load, 

a- 

T. 

1  cord  foot, 

>( 

cd.  ft. 

1  cord  of  wood, 

*' 

Cd. 

i  perch    or  ) 
1  <  stone,   or  >• 

a 

Pch. 

(  masonry.  ) 

Cubic  measure  is  used  in  estimating  the  contents  of  solids ; 
as  wood,  stone,  capacity  of  cisterns,  &c. 


USSSi 


CUBIC    MEASURK 


171 


Cubic  inch, 


Cubic  foot. 


Cubic  yaxd. 


To  f/rid  the  cubic  contents  of  any  solid  hody. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  length  by  the  breadth,  and  that  pro- 
duct by  the  thickness. 

Notes. — 1.  A  load  of  earth  contains  a  cubic  yard,  and 
weighs  about  3250  lbs. 

2.  Railway  and  transportation  companies  estimate  light 
freight  by  the  number  of  cubic  feet  it  occupies ;  l)ut  heavy 
freight  is  estimated  by  weight. 

3.  A  pile  of  wood  4  feet  wide,  4  feet  high,  and  8  feet  long, 
contains  1  cord  ;  and  a  cord  foot  is  1  foot  in  length  of  such 
a  pile. 

4.  A  perch  of  stone  or  masonry  is  16J  feet  long,  1^  feet 
wide,  and  1  foot  high,  and  contains  24f  cubic  feet. 

5.  A  brick  is  usually  8  inches  long,  4  inches  wide,  and  2 
inches  thick ;  hence  27  bricks  make  a  cubic  foot. 

6.  Joiners,  painters,  and  masons  make  no  allowance  for 
windows,  dooi-s,  &c.  Masons  make  no  allowance  for  the 
corners  of  the  walls  of  houses  or  of  cellars.     The  size  of  a 


172  CUBIC    MEASURE. 

cellar  is  estimated  by  the  measurement  of  the  outside  of  the 
wall. 

Ton  weight  and  ton  measure.~K  ton  of  hay,  or  any 
other  coarse  bulky  article  usually  sold  by  that  measure,  is 
20  gross  hundreds,  that  is  2240  lbs.  But  in  many  places  it 
has  become  the  custom  to  count  only  2000  lbs.  for  a  ton. 
In  freighting  ships,  42  cubic  feet  are  allowed  to  a  ton ;  in 
the  measurement  of  timber,  40  solid  feet  if  round,  and  50 
if  square  make  a  ton. 


THE  METRIC  SYSTEM  OF  WEIGHTS  AND 
MEASURES.* 

The  metric  system  of  weights  and  measures  had  its  origin 
in  France  during  the  Revohition  in  the  year  1790.  The  fol- 
lowing year  a  commission  of  scientific  men  was  appointed 
by  the  government  to  select  an  appropriate  unit,  and  as  the 
result  of  their  investigations  the  ten-millionth  part  of  the 
earth's  quadrant  was  chosen  and  called  a  Metre.  To  deter- 
mine the  unit  of  weight  a  cube  of  pure  water  at  its  greatest 
density,  each  edge  of  which  is  one-hundredth  of  a  metre,  was 
taken  and  called  a  Gramme  (anglicized  gram).  The  mul- 
tiples and  subdivisions  were  made  to  correspond  to  the  deci- 
mal scale,  hence  its  great  simplicity. 

This  system  was  declared  obligatory  in  France  after  Nov. 
2,  1801 ;  but  no  penalty  was  attached  to  non-conformity 
until  after  Jan.  1, 1841.  The  system  has  since  been  adopted 
wholly  or  in  part  by  Spain,  Belgium,  Portugal,  Holland, 
Great  Britain,  Greece,  Italy,  Norway,  Sweden,  Mexico, 
Guatemala,  Venezuela,  Ecuador,  IT.  S.  of  Columbia,  Brazil, 
Chili,  San  Salvador,  and  the  Argentine  Republic.     In  1866 

*  The  followiug  article  on  the  Metric  System  of  Weights  and  Measures  was 
prepared  for  this  work  by  S.  A.  Felter,  A.M.,  author  of  a  well-known  series 
of  mathematical  text-books. 


174  METRIC    SYSTEM    OF    WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES. 

Congress  authorized  the  metric  system  in  the  United  States 
by  passing  the  following  bill : — 

AN    ACT    TO    AUTHORIZE     THE    USE     OF    THE    METRIC    SYSTEM   OF 
WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES. 

Be  it  ermcted  hy  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatwes 
of  the  United  States  of  America  in  Congress  assembled^ 
That  from  and  after  the  passage  of  this  act,  it  shall  be  law- 
ful throughout  the  United  States  of  America  to  employ  the 
weights  and  measures  of  the  metric  system  ;  and  no  contract 
or  dealing,  or  pleading  in  any  court,  shall  be  deemed  invalid 
or  liable  to  objection,  because  the  weights  or  measures  ex- 
pressed or  referred  to  therein  are  weights  or  measures  of  the 
metric  system. 

Sec.  2. — And  he  it  further  enacted^  That  the  tables  in  the 
schedule  hereto  annexed,  shall  be  recognized  in  the  construc- 
tion of  contracts,  and  in  all  legal  proceedings,  as  establish- 
ing, in  terms  of  the  weights  and  measures  now  in  use  in  the 
United  States,  the  equivalents  of  the  weights  and  measures 
expressed  therein  in  terms  of  the  metric  system  ;  and  said 
tables  may  be  lawfully  used  for  computing,  determining,  and 
expressing,  in  customary  weights  aud  measures,  the  weights 
and  measures  of  the  metric  system. 

The  utility  of  the  metric  system  commends  itself,  even 
at  a  glance,  and  hence  it  becomes  important  that  all  should 
become  acquainted  with  it.  It  will  doubtless  soon  come  in- 
to general  use  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  systems  of  weight 
and  measure.     The  following  is  a  brief  and  condensed  view 


METRIC    SYSTEM    OF    WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES.  175 

of  the  system,  so  clear  and  simple  that  a  child  can  under- 
stand it : — 

The  Metric  System  of  weights  and  measures  is  formed 
upon  the  decimal  scale,  and  has  for  its  base  an  invariable 
unit  derived  from  nature,  and  called  a  Metre  ;  and  upon 
this  unit  all  the  units  of  weight  and  measure  are  based. 

The  Metre  is  the  ten-millionth  part  of  the  distance  from 
the  equator  to  the  pole ;  and  is  the  principal  unit  of  linear 
measure. 

T7ie  Are  is  a  square  whose  side  is  ten  metres.  It  is  the 
principal  unit  of  superficial  measure. 

The  Stere  is  a  cube  whose  edge  is  a  metre.  It  is  the  prin- 
cipal unit  of  solid  or  cubic  measure. 

TJie  Litre  is  a  cube  whose  edge  is  the  tenth  of  a  metre. 
It  is  the  principal  unit  of  all  measures  of  capacity. 

The  Gram  is  the  weight  of  a  cube  of  pure  water  at  its 
greatest  density,  whose  edge  is  the  hundredth  part  of  a 
metre.  A  litre  of  water  weighs  1,000  grams.  It  is  the  prin- 
cipal unit  of  weight. 

The  names  of  the  derivative  denominations  are  formed 
by  joining  a  Latin  or  Greek  prefix  to  the  principal  units. 
There  are  seven  of  these  prefixes,  derived  as  follows; 

i  MiLLi,    from  Millesimus,  a  thousandth. 
Latin.  I  Centi,    from  Ce7itesimus,  a  hundredth. 
(  Deci,     from  Decimus,      a  tenth. 


1 

176             METRIC    SYSTEM   OF    WEIGHTS    AND   MEASURES.                           ' 

'  Deca,    ten. 

Greek.  - 

Hecto,  from  Hecaton^      one  hundred.                 ; 

Kilo,     from  Chilioi^        one  thousand.                \ 

^  Myria,  from  Myrim.,        ten  tlwusand.                \ 

The  formation  of  the  tables  can  be  seen  at  a  glance  by     | 

the  following :  — 

11 

MilU 

>l 

^                    -] 

1 

Centi 

Deci 

-  Mepre.      \ 

Are.-^ 

-  Litre. 

j 

-  Gram. 

Deca 

-  Stere. 

Hecto 

Kilo 

j- 

Myria 

- 

' 

. 

Names. 

Pkonunciation. 

Abr. 
mm. 

Names. 

Pronunciation. 

ABR. 

MiUimetre 

Mill'-e-mee'-ter 

Hectostere 

Hec'-to-steer 

hs.              1 

Centimetre 

Sent'-e-mee'-ter 

cm. 

Kilostere 

Kill'-o-steer 

ks.              1 

Decimetre 
Metre 

Des'-e-mee'-ter 
Mee'-ter 

dm. 
m. 

Myriastere 

Mir'  -e-a-steer 
Mill'-e-li'-ter 

mys.           1 

ml.              I 

Millilitre 

Decametre 

Dek'-a-mee'-ter 

dkm 

Centilitre 

Sent'-e-li'-ter 

cl.               1 

Hectometre 

Hec'-to-mee'-ter 

hm. 

Decilitre 

Des'-e-li'-ter 

dL               1 

Kilometre 

Kill'-o-mee'-ter 

km. 

Litre 

Li'-ter 

/.                 ' 

Myriametre 

Mir'-e-a-mee'-ter 

myrn. 

Decalitre 

Dek'-a-li'-ter 

dkl.             ' 

Milliare 

MiU'-e-are 

ma. 

Hectolitre 

Hec'-to-li'-ter 

hi. 

Centiare 

Sent'-e-are 

ca. 

Kilolitre 

Kill'-o-li'-ter 

U.                    ; 

Deciare 
Are 

Des'-e-are 
Are 

da. 
a. 

Myrialitre 

Mir'-e-a-li'-ter 
Mill'-e-gram 

myl. 

mg.             \ 

Milligram 

Decare 

Dek'-are 

dka. 

(Centigram 

Sent' -e -gram 

eg.            1 

Hectare 

Hec'-tare 

ha. 

Decigram 

Des'-e-gram 

dg.               1 

Kilare 

Kill'-are 

ka. 

Gram 

Gram 

9-                ' 

Myriaro 

Mir'-e-are 

mya. 

Decagram 

Dek'-a-gram 

dkg. 

Millistere 

MiU'-e-steer 

ms. 

Hectogram 

3ec  -to-gram 

hg.             \ 

Centistere 

Sent' -e -steer 

cs. 

Kilogram 

iill'-o-gram 

kg. 

Decistere 

Des'-e-steer 

ds. 

Myriagram 

Mir'  -e-a-gram 

myg.           ' 

Stere 

Steer 

s. 

Quintal 

Quin'-tal 

q.                 1 

Decastere     Dek'-a-steer 

dks. 

Tonneau 

run '-no 

^-          ,       i 

*  The  a  in  deca  and  myria,  and  the 

0  in  hecto  and  kilo  are  dropped  when 

prefixed  to  Are. 

METRIC    SYSTEM    OF    WEIGHTS    AND   MEASURES. 


177 


LINEAR  MEASURE. 


Illustration* 


Note. — By  the  accompany- 
ing illustration  it  will  be  seen 
that  one-tenth  of  a  metre,  or 
ten  centimetres,  equals  about 
3||  in.,  or  a  trifle  short  of  4  in. 

This  measure,  as  well  as  the 
other  measures  and  weights, 
is  written  as  whole  numbers 
and  decimals.  The  decimal 
point  is  placed  at  the  right  of 
the  unit ;  thus,  4.167  m.  may 
be  written  416.7  cm.  To  make 
a  metric  rule,  cut  a  piece  of 
wood,  paper,  or  tape,  39|  in. 
long.  Divide  it  into  ten  equal 
parts,  and  each  part  into  ten 
other  equal  parts ;  each  of  these 
parts  is  1  centimetre.  Divide 
each  centimetre  into  ten  equal 
parts,  and  each  part  is  a  mil- 
limetre. 

The  diameter  of  the  nickel  live  cent  piece  of  1866  is  2 
centimstres^  and  its  weight  is  5  grams. 

The  Centimetre  is  the  unit  generally  used  for  measure- 

8*' 


o 

Q> 

00 

CO 

5 

nil  nil 

4 

nil  nil 

CO      5 

nil  nil 

III!  Nil 

— 

CO 

~ 

ca 

Z_ 

r^ 

ITS 


METRIC    SYSTEM    OF    WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES. 


nients  less  than  a  metre.     For  its  length  in  coniinon  measure 
see  illustration. 

The  Metre  is  the  unit  commonly  used  by  artisans.     It 
equals  3  ft.  3f  in.  (nearly). 

The  Kihmietre  is  the  unit  commonly  used  by  surveyors 
in  measuring  distances.     Its  length  is  198  rd.  13  ft.  10  in. 


Table.* 


Full. 


10  millimetres  = 

10  centimetres  = 

10  decimetres  =: 

10  metres  = 

10  decametres  = 

10  hectometres  = 


1  centimetre. 
1  decimetre. 
1  Melre. 
1  decametre. 
1  hectometre. 
1  kilometre. 


10  kilometres      =     1  myriametre. 


Contracted. 
10  millimetres     =     1  centimetre. 
100  centimetres    =     1  metre. 
loo  metres  =     1  kilometre. 


SQUARE  MEASURE. 

The  square  Metre  is  the  unit  commonly  used  by  artisans 
in  specifying  surfaces  of  small  extent.  It  contains  about  10 
sq.  ft.  110  sq.  in. 

The  Are  is  the  unit  commonly  used  to  express  quantities 
less  than  the  hectare.     100  ares  make  one  hectare. 

The  Hectare  is  the   unit   commonly  used   by  surveyors 

*  Note. — The  unit  of  each  table  is  divided  into  ten  equal  parts,  designated 
by  prefixing  deci  (tenth) ;  as,  deczgram.  The  tenths  are  divided  into  ten  other 
equal  parts,  designated  by  prefixing  c&nti  (hundredth) ;  as,  centi^am.  The 
hujidredths  are  subdivided  in  the  same  manner,  and  are  designated  by  prefix- 
ing 7mlli  (thousandth) ;  as,  milligram.  The  contracted  table  is  the  most  con- 
venient for  common  use. 


METRIC    SYSTEM    OF    WEIGHTS    AND   MEASURES.             179 

in   estimating   the   contents   of   land.     It    contains   2.471 

acres. 

Table. 

FiiU. 

Contracted. 

10  milliares     =     1  centiare. 
10  centiares    =     1  declare. 
10  deciares      =     1  Are. 
10  ares             =     1  decare. 
10  decares       =     1  hectare. 
10  hectares     =     1  kilare. 
10  kUares        =     1  myriare. 

100  sq.  millimetres  =1  sq.  centimetre. 
100  sq.  centimetres  =  1  sq.  decimetre. 
100  sq.  decimetres  =1  sq.  metre. 
100  sq.  metres         =\  are. 
100  ares                  =\  hectare. 

CUBIC   OR    SOLID    MEASURE. 

T/ie  euhic  Metre  or  Stere  is  the  unit  commonly  used  by 

engineers  in  estimating  the  solid  contents  of  embankments, 

cellars,  walls,  <fec.     It  equals  1.308  cu.  yards. 

Table. 

FiiU. 

Contracted. 

10  millisteres     =     1  centistere. 
10  centisteres    =     1  decistere. 
10  decisteres      =     1  Stere. 
10  steres            =     1  decastere. 
10  decasteres     =     1  hectostere. 
10  hectosteres   =     1  kilostere. 
10  kilosteres      =     1  myriastere. 

1000  cu.  centimetres  =  1  litre. 
1000  litres                    -  1  stere. 
1000  steres                  =  1  kilostere. 

DRY    AND    LIQUID    MEASURE. 

The  unit  commonly  used  in  the  measurement  of  grain. 

roots,  and  liquids  by  the  barrel  is  the  hectolitre.     It  equals 

26.417  gal.  wine  measure,  or  2.839  bu.  dry  measure. 

The  unit  commonly  used  by  grocers  is  the  litre.  It  equals 

180            METRIC    SYSTEM    OF    WEIGHTS    AND   MEASURES. 

1.056  qt.  wine  measure,  or  .908  qt.  dry  measure,  or  a  trifle 

more  than  a  wine  quart. 

Table. 

Full. 

Contracted. 

10  miUilitres        =     1  centilitre. 
10  centihtres       =     1  decilitre. 
10  decihtres         =     1  Litre. 
10  htres               =     1  decahtre. 
10  decahtres        =     1  hectohtre. 
10  hectolitres       =     1  kilolitre. 
10  kilolitres         =     1  myrialitre. 

100  centihtres     =     1  htre. 
100  htres            =     1  hectohtre. 
1000  litres            =     1  kilohtre. 

WEIGHT. 

The   unit  commonly  used  in  philosophical  experiments, 

by  jewellers  and  druggists  is  the  gram.  Its  weight  is  15.482 

gr.  troy. 

The  unit  commonly  used  by  grocers  is  the  kilogram^  com- 

monly contracted  Icilo.     It  is  the  weight  of  a  litre  of  pure 

w^ater,  and  equals  2.2046  lbs.,  or  about  ^  lbs.  avoirdupois. 

The  unit  commonly  used  in  weighing  heavy  bodies,  as 

coal,  iron,  marble,  R.  R.  freight,  &c.,  is  the  tonneau.     It 

is  the  weiglit  of  a  cubic  metre  of  pure  water,  and  equals 

2204.6  lbs.  avoirdupois. 

Table. 

Full. 

Contracted. 

10  milligrams     =     1  centigram. 
10  centigrams    —     1  decigram. 
10  decigrams      —     1  Gram. 
10  grams            =     1  decagram. 
10  decagrams     =     1  hectogram. 
1 0  hectograms    =     1  kilogram. 
10  kilograms      =     1  myriagram. 
10  myriagrams  =     1  quintal. 
10  quintals          =     1  tonneau. 

100  centigrams     =     1  gram. 
1000  grams             =     1  kilogram. 
1000  kilograms       =     1  tonneau. 

METRIC    SYSTEM    OF    WEIGHTS    AND   MEASURES. 


181 


MEASUREMENT   OF  ANGLES. 

In  the  centesimal  or  French  method  the  right  angle  is 
divided  into  100  equal  parts  called  grades^  the  grade  into 
100  equal  parts  called  minutes^  the  minute  into  100  equal 
parts  called  seconds. 

Table. 


100  seconds 
100  minutes 
100  grades 


=         1  minute  (') 

=         1  grade  (gr.) 

=         1  right  angle  (r.  a. 


Note. — Since  the  signs  for  both  the  common  and  centesi- 
mal methods  are  the  same,  to  prevent  confusion  when  min- 
utes and  seconds  are  expressed  in  the  centesimal  method, 
annex  the  abbreviation  cen. ;  thus,  3'  46'^  cen. 


Scale. 

«  o  c  = 

fs;^  s"a 

0.  0  0  0 


CURRENCY. 


Table. 


10  millimes  =  1  centime. 
10  centimes  =  1  decime. 
10  decimes     =     1  Franc. 


LINEAR  MEASURE. 
Table"^  of  equivalents. 


1  in.  =  25|^  mm.  (nearly). 

1  ft.  =  305  ram.  (nearly). 

1  yd.  =914  mm. 

1  rd.  =  5029  mm. 


1  mi.  =  1609.35  m. 
1  cm.  =  .3937=1  in.  (nearly). 
1  m.    =  39.3'7  in.  =  1.093  yd. 
1  km.  =  .62137  mi.  =  198  rd.,  i: 
10  in. 


ft., 


*  Authorized  by  Act  of  Congress,  July  27,  1866. 


182 


SPECIFIC   GRAVITY. 

Square   Measure. — Table. 


1  sq.  in.  =  6.5  sq.  cm. 
I  sq.  ft.  r=  9.  .3  sq.  dm. 
1  sq.  yd.  =  .835  sq.  m. 
1  acre      =  40.47  a. 


1  sq.  cm. 

1  sq.  m. 

1  are. 
1  ha. 


=  ] 


155  sq.  in. 

1550  sq.  in. 

10.16  sq.  ft. 
119.6  sq.  yd. 
2.471  acres. 


Cubic  Measure. — Table. 


1  cu.    in.    =   16.387  cu.  centm. 


1  cu.  ft      = 

1  cu.  yd.    = 
1  cord        r= 
1  fluid  oz.  = 
1  gal. 
1  bus.         = 


j  28.; 
\  Mi 


.34  litres. 

!83  steres. 
.76531  steres. 
3.6281  steres. 
.02958  litres. 
3.786  litres. 
35.24  litres. 


1  oz.  troy 
1  lb.  troy 
1  lb.  apoth. 
1  oz  avoir. 
1  lb.  avoir. 


h 


31.1  grams. 

373.2     " 

28.35     " 
453.6     " 


1  litre  = 

1  hecto- 
litre = 

1  kiloli-  1 

tre  I 

1  cu.  me-  \ 

tre  I 

1  stere  J 


1.0567  qt.  liq.  meas. 
.U08  qt.  dry  meas. 
2.837  bu.  dry  meas. 
26.417  gal.  liq.  meas. 

f  35.3 16  cu.  ft. 

I  1.308  cu,  yd. 
=    ^264.17    gal.    Uq. 

I      meas. 

[.2759  cord. 


Weight. — Table. 


1  ton  avoir. 

1  gram. 

1  kilogram 
1  tonneau 


=  907.2  kilos. 
_  \  15.432  gr.  troy. 
\  .5648  dr.  avoir. 
—  2.2046  lb.  avoir. 
=  2204.6  lb.  avoir. 


Angular  Measure. — Table. 


1  r.  a.  =  100  grades. 

1°         =  1^  grades. 

r  =  1.85  minutes  (cen.). 

1"         =  3.08  seconds  ("cen.). 


1  cir.  =  400 

1  grade  =  9  deg. 

r  cen.  =  5.4'. 

1"  cen.  =  3.24". 


SPECIFIC    GRAVITY, 


When  a  cubic  foot  of  a  substance  is  compared  with  the 
same  bulk  of  water,  and  weighs  a  certain  number  of  times  as 
much,  that  number  is  called  its  specific  gravity. 

When  any  substance  weighs  less  than  water,  it  will  float 


SPECIFIC  GRAvrrY. 


183 


on  it,  and  when  it  weighs  less  tlian  air,  it  will  rise  in  it ; 
thus,  iron  will  float  in  melted  lead,  gas  will  rise  in  the  air, 
and  wood  will  float  on  water. 

The  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  water  being  1000  ounces 
avoirdupois,  it  has  been  adopted  as  the  standard  of  specific 
gravities.  Hence  the  specific  gravity  of  a  body  or  substance 
is  the  proportion  its  weight  bears  to  this  standard. 

To  find  the  specifiG  gravity  of  a  hody. 

Rule. — Weigh  it  first  in  air  and  then  in  water,  and  take 
the  difference  of  these  weights ;  then  as  the  difference  is  to 
the  weight  in  air,  so  is  1000  to  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
body. 

Example. — What  is  the  specific  gravity  of  a  stone  weigh- 
ing 20  lbs.,  but  in  water  only  15  lbs.  ? 

Solution.— 20— 15  =  5  difference;    then  5  :  20::  1000  : 
4000.     Ans. 


.Iii^hiilinmhii.i.iinmiiiiiiiiuiiniiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiihiumii 


When  the  hody  is  lighter  than  water. 


184  SPECIFIC    GRAVITY. 

Rule. — Attach  to  it  a  jjiece  of  metal  sufticient  to  sink  it 
in  the  water ;  weigh  the  piece  added  and  the  body  separately, 
both  in  and  out  of  the  water,  and  find  how  much  each  loses 
in  water  by  subtracting  its  weight  in  water  from  its  weight 
in  air,  and  subtract  the  less  of  these  differences  from  the 
greater ;  then  as  the  remainder  is  to  the  weight  of  the 
light  body  in  air,  so  is  1000  to  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
body. 

Example. — Required  the  specific  gravity  of  a  piece  of 
wood  which  weighs  20  lbs.  in  air ;  attached  to  it  is  a  piece 
of  metal,  which  weighs  30  lbs.  in  air  and  25  lbs.  in  water, 
and  the  two  pieces  together  weighing  in  water  10  lbs.  ? 

Solution.— 20  +  30-10=40 

30-25=  5 


35  :  20::  1000  :  571.44.  A7is. 

To  reduce  the  specific  gy^avity  of  a  body  to  its  weight  in 
lbs.  per  cubic  foot. 

Rule. — Divide  the  specific  gravity  by  16,  and  the  quotient 
is  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  in  lbs. 

Example. — Required  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  a  sub- 
stance the  specific  gravity  of  which  is  4.800  ? 

Solution.— 4.8004-16=300  lbs.     Ans. 


SPECIFIC   GRAVITY.                                          185 

Table,  sJiovmig  the  spedfic  gravities  of  various  suhstanaes. 

DESIGNATION. 

Sp.  Gravity. 

DESIGNATION. 

Sp.Gravity. 

DESIGNATION. 

Sp.Gravity 

.240 
.644 

1.331 
.695 
.671 
.657 
.669 

1.333 

1.120 
.919 

1.063 
.750 
.897 
.705 
.660 
.554 
.661 
.785 
.705 
.482 
.671 
.585 
.798 
.838 
.383 
.529 

Antimony,  .  . . 

Arsenic, 

Bismuth, 

Bra=8 

6.712 

5.763 

9.8J3 

7.820 

8.700 

8.788 

8.878 

19.258 

17.486 

15.709 

7.207 

7.778 

11.352 

lH.n98 

22.069 

10.477 

7.833 

7.291 

6.861 

2.730 

1.078 

3.073 

1.714 

1.900 

2.784 

.441 

1.930 

Coral 

2.700 
1.270 
1.656 
3.521 
1.500 
4.000 
2.590 
2.930 
2.625 
2.143 
2.168 
2.876 
1.822 
3.180 
.804 
7.000 
2.838 

.793 
.800 
.845 
.852 

1.231 
.913 
.715 

1.040 

Cork, 

Cypress, 

Ebony, 

Elder, 

Elm, 

Coal,  bit 

anthr.,.. 

Diamond, 

Earth,  loose,.. 

Kmery, 

Flint 

Bronze 

Copper, 

Copper  wire,. . 
Gold,  pure 

'•     22  carat. 

"     20  carat 
Iron,  cast, 

"    bars, 

Lead 

Fir,  yellow,  . . 

"     white.... 
Lignum  vitse,.. 

Live  oak, 

Logwood 

Mahogany, . . . 

Maple, 

Mulberry, 

Orange, 

Pine,  yellow,., 

"     white,  . . 

Pear, 

Plum 

Quince, 

Sassafras, 

Walnut, 

Willow, 

Yew 

Hickory, 

Poplar 

*•      whie... 

Glass 

Granite 

Grindstone,. . . 

Gypsum, 

Hone,  white. . 

Ivory, . . 

Limestone,.  .. 
Lime,  quick,. . 
Manganese  . . . 
Marble,  par.,.. 

DRY  WOOD. 

Apple 

Adder 

Ash, 

Mercury 

Platinum, 

Silver, 

Steel 

Tin 

Zinc 

Alabaster, 

Amber, 

Asbestos, 

Borax, 

Brick 

Beech 

Box, 

Chalk, 

Charcoal, 

Clay, 

Campeachy,  . . 

Cherry, 

Cocoa 

When  tJie  specifie  gravity  of  a  substance  is  given,  to  find 

the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  pure  wa- 

ter (62|-  lbs.)  by  the  specific  gravity  of  the  given  substance. 

I  wish  to  find  the  numl)er  of  cubic  inches  in  a  piece  of 

cast  iron,  that  will  displace  25  ounces  of  water.     What  will 

it  weigh  ? 

Operation.— 1.  25  oz.  x  1728=43200. 

2.  43200^1000=48  cu.  in.  (nearly).  Ans. 

3.  25  oz.x  4501-^1000=11    lb.    (nearly). 

Ans. 

186  SPECIFIC    GKAVITT. 

Note. — To  find  the  number  of  cubic  inches  in  any  irregu- 
lar body,  weigh  a  vessel  containing  sufficient  rain  water  to 
cover  the  solid,  then  immerse  the  solid  in  the  water  by 
means  of  a  string  or  wire  held  in  the  hand,  being  careful 
not  to  touch  the  vessel.  While  the  solid  is  immersed, 
weigh  the  water  and  vessel  again  ;  the  difference  will  be 
the  weight  of  the  water  displaced  by  the  solid. 

Rule. — I.  Multiply  the  weight  of  the  water  in  ounces  by 
1728,  and  divide  by  1000,  the  result  will  be  the  contents  in 
cubic  inches. 

II.  To  find  the  weight,  multiply  the  weight  of  the  water 
displaced  in  ounces  by  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  the 
substance,  and  divide  the  product  by  1000,  and  the  result 
will  be  the  weight  in  pounds. 

I  have  a  pattern  of  a  lock  that  will  displace  20  ounces 
of  water ;  how  much  will  1000  copies  of  cast  iron  weigh  ? 
How  much  will  they  cost  me  at  9  cents  per  pound  ? 

oz. 

Operation.— 20x450  J -^lOOOz^  9.01  lb. 

lb. 

9.01  X  1000  X  6.09=$810.90.     Ans. 

I  have  a  lead  pattern  of  a  wheel  that  displaces  15  ounces 
of  water;  what  will  500  copies  in  brass  cost  me  at  40  cents 
per  pound  ? 

oz. 

Operation.— 15  x  504f- 1000=7.571  lb. 

lb. 

7.571  X  500  X  $.40=11514.20.     Ans. 


VELOCITY.  187 

Table,  showing   the   weight   of  a  cubic  foot  of  different 
substances. 

Avoir. 

1  cubic  foot  of  Brass ,  weighs  504|  lb. 

"          Brick "  125  " 

Copper "  555  " 

Clay "  135  " 

Coal  (anthracite) "  54  " 

Coal  (bituminous) "  50  " 

Granite "  165  " 

"          Iron  (wrought) "  486|  " 

Iron  (cast) ''  450J  " 


Lead "  708^ 

Marble "  171 

Soil  (common) "  124 

Sand "  95 


Tallow ''  59  " 

''          Water  (pure) "  62J  " 

Water  (sea) '^  64J  " 

Wood  (oak) "  55  " 

''          Wood  (yellow  pine) ''  42  " 

''          Wood  (white  pine) "  30  " 

Charcoal  (hard  wood)....  "  18  J" 

"          Charcoal  (pine  wood)  ....  "  18  " 

"          Cork "  15  " 


VELOCITY.* 

The  average  velocities  of  different  objects  are  found  in 
the  following 

*  Parker's  Philosophy. 


188     solid  matter  and  water  in  articles  of  diet. 

Table. 

Per  hour.  Per  sec. 

A  man  walks 3  miles,     or        4  feet. 

A  horse  trots 7     "  or      10  " 

A  horse  rnns 20     "  or      29  " 

Steamboat  runs 18     "  or      26  " 

Sailing  vessel  runs 10     ''  or      14  " 

Slow  rivers  flow 3     "  or        4  " 

Rapid  riv^ers  flow 7     "  or      10  " 

A  moderate  wind  blows 7     "  or      10  '' 

A  storm  moves 36     "  or      52  " 

A  hurricane  moves 80     ''  or    117  " 

A  rifle  ball       "        1000     "  or  1466  " 

Sound                "        743     "  or  1142  " 

Light                 "        192000  miles  per  sec. 

Electricity        "        288000     "  "      " 


SOLID  MATTER   AND  WATER   IN   ARTICLES   OF  DIET. 


Table,  showing  the  proportioji  of  solid  matter  and  water  in 
100jt>a/'^6'  each  of  the  following  articles  of  diet. 


Designation. 

Solid 
matter. 

Water. 

Designation. 

Solid 
matter. 

Water. 

Wheat 

87 
87 
86 
8() 
S6 
86 
74 
51 
29 
27 
26 
26 
25 
25 

13 
13 
14 
14 
14 
14 
26 
49 
71 
73 
74 
74 
75 
75 

Pork..                

24 

21 

20 

19 

18 

16 

13 

13 

13 

13 

8 

7 

5 

3 

76 

Peas 

Codfish . 

79 

Rice 

Blood 

80 

Beans 

Trout . 

81 

Rye 

ADDles 

82 

Corn 

Pears 

84 

Oatmeal 

Carrots 

Beets 

87 

Wheat  bread 

87 

Mutton 

Milk 

87 

Chicken 

Oysters    

87 

Lean  Beef 

Cabbage .          .... 

92 

Eggs 

Turnips 

93 

Veal 

Water  Melon 

Cucumber 

95 

Potatoes 

97 

WEIGHTS    OF   GRAIN,    SEEDS,    &C. 


189 


WEIGHTS   OF   GRAIN,  SEEDS,  &c. 

Table,  showing  the  weight  of  grain,  seeds,  ikc.^jper  hushel, 
as  established  by  the  Legislatures  of  the  following  States. 
The  letter  m  indicates  sold  by  measure. 


AKTICLES. 


Wheat,  lbs 

Rye, 

Corn, 

Oats, » . 

Barley, 

Buckwheat, 

Clover  seed, 

Timothy  seed,. 

Flax  seed, 

Hemp  seed, ... 
Biue-grass  seed, 
Apples,  dried,., 
Peaches,  dried, . 

Coarse  salt, 

Fine  salt, 

Potatoes, , 

Peas, 

Beans, 

Castor  Beans, . . 

Onions, 

Corn  Meal , 

Mineral  Coal, . . 


60160 
565G 
50,56 
32;32 
48147 
48 
64 
4-2 
56 


56 


85  50 


62 


60 
56 
56 
35 
48 
52 
60 
45 
56 
44 
14 
28  24 
28i33 
50 
50 
60 

60 
46 
57 


60 


3 


\4 


60  60 
5656 
56156 
33!  30 
48;48 
52  50 


60 


60 


64 


55 


60  60 
5656 
56'52 
32m 
46  m 
46m 
;m 
m 
m 


60 


To  reduce  cubic  feet  to  busliels,  struck  measure,  divide 
the  cubic  feet  by  56  and  multiply  by  45. 


190 


NUTRITIVE    VALUE    OF    CERTAIN    CROPS. 


PEOPOETION  OF  ALCOHOL  IN  LIQUOKS. 

Table,  showing  the  jpTQjportion  of  alcohol  in  100  jx^rtSy  ecbch^ 
of  the  following  liquors. 


Designation.  Parts  in  100, 

Scotch  Whiskey 54.32 

Irish  Whiskey 53. 9 

Rum 53.  G8 

Brandv 63.39 

Gia 51.6 

Port.... 22.9 

Madeira 22.27 

Currant 20.55 

Teneriffe 19.79 


Designation.  Parts  in  100. 

Sherry 19.17 

Claret 15.1 

Champagne 13.8 

Gooseberry 11.84 

Elder 8.79 

Ale 6.87 

Porter 4.2 

Cider 9.8  to 5.2 

Prof.  Brandt. 


NUTKITIYE  YALUE   OF   CEETAIN  CROPS. 

If  we  suppose  an  acre  to  yield  the  following  quantities  of 
the  usually  cultivated  crops,  the  weight  of  dry  starch  and 
gum,  of  gluten,  albumen,  casein,  &c.,  of  oil  or  fat,  and  of 
saline  matter,  reaped  in  each  crop,  will  be  represented 
nearly  by  the  following  numbers : — 


DESIGKATIOM. 


Wheat 

Barley 

Oats 

Peas 

Beans 

Indian  Corn.. 

Potatoes 

Turnips 

Wheat  Straw. 
Meadow  Hay. 
Clover  Hay. . 
Cabbage  .  . . . 


iba. 


1500 
1800 
2100 
1600 
1600 
1800 


12  tons  27000 


30  ' 

2  ' 
20  ' 


6700U 
3000 
3400 
45i)0 

45000 


n 


2-25 

270 

420 

130 

160 

100 

1080 

1340 

1500 

1020 

1120 

430 


825 
1080 
1-50 

800 

640 
1260 
4800 
6000 

900 
lc60 
1800 
2300 


a  . 
|.a 


180 
230 
300 
380 
420 
220 
510 

lOOO 

40 

240 

420 

1300 


Oil. 

45 

50 
100 

i>4 

40 
130 

45 
200 

80 
120 
200 
130 


30 

50 

75 

48 

50 

30 

240 

450 

150 

220 

400 

600 


Johnston 


QUANTITY    OF    SEED    REQUIEED.  191 

Note. — From  the  above  table  it  appears  that  the  acre 
which,  by  cropping  with  wheat,  would  yield  a  given  weight 
of  starch,  sugar,  and  gum,  would,  when  cropped  with  bar- 
ley or  oats,  yield  one-fourth  more  of  these  substances — with 
potatoes,  about  four  times  as  much,  and  with  turnips  eight 
times  the  same  quantity.  In  other  words,  the  piece  of  ground 
which,  when  sown  with  wheat,  will  maintain  one  man, 
would  support  one  and  a  quarter  if  sown  with  barley  or 
oats,  four  with  potatoes,  and  eight  with  turnips — in  so  far 
as  the  nutritive  power  of  these  crops  depends  on  the  star  oh, 
sugar^  a/nd  gum  they  contain. 

PEECENTAGE   OF   OIL   IN   SEEDS,  GRAIN,  &o. 

Oil  per  cent,  in  dAff event  seeds ^  grain ^  &c. 


Oil  per  cent. 

Linseed 11  to  22  say  17 

Hempseed 14  "    25   "     19 

Rapeseed. 40  "    70   "     55 

White  mustard 36  "    38    "     37 

Sweet  almond.  ...  40  "    54  "     47 

Bitter  almond 28"    46   "     37 

Turnip  seed 40  "    50   "     45 

Wheat  flour 2  "      4   "       3 

Barley 2  "      3    ''       2^ 


Oil  per  cent. 

Oats 5  to  8  say  6i 

Indian  com 5  "   9  "  7 

Wheat  bran, 3  "   5  "  4 

Potatoes,        turnips, 

and  cabbage i^ 

Wheat-straw. 2  "   3|  "  3 

Oat-straw '  4 

Meadow   hay 2"   5  "  3| 

Clover  hay 3  "    5  "  5 


QUANTITIES   OF  SEED   REQUIRED   TO   THE 

ACRE,  &o. 

Table,  showing  the  guantity  of  garden  seeds  requirea  to 

plant  a  given  space. 

Designation.  Space  and  quantity  of  seeds. 

Asparagus |1  oz.  produces  1000  plants,  and  requires  a  bed  12  ft  sq. 

"        Roots.  .1000  plant  a  bed  4  feet  wide  225  feet  long. 

Eng.  Dwarf  Beans.  1  quart  plants  from  100  to  l/)0  feet  of  row. 

French         "           P  "          "      250  or  350  feet  of  row. 

Beans,  pole,   largeil  "          "      100  hills. 

*'         "      small!  1  "          "      300  hiUs.  or  260  feet  of  row. 


192 


QUANTITY    OF    SEED    REQUIRED. 


Designation. 

Beets 

Broccoli  and  Kale 

Cabbage. 

Cauliflower 

Carrot 

Celery 

Cucumber 


Egg  Plant . . . . 

Endive 

Leek 

Lettuce 

Melon 

Nasturtium. . . 

Onion 

Okra 

Parsley 

Parsnip 

Peppers 

Peas 

Pumpkin 

Radish 

Salsify 

Spinage 

Squash 

Tomato 

Turnip 

Water  Melon, 


Space  and  quantity  of  seeds. 
10  lbs.  to  the  acre  ;   1  oz  plants  150  feet  of  row. 
I  oz.  plants  2,500  plants,  and  requires  40  sq.  ft.  of  ground. 
Early  sorts  same  as  brocoli,  and  require  60  feq.  ft.  ground. 
The  same  as  cabbage. 
I  oz.  to  15u  of  row. 

1  oz.  gives  7000  plants,  and  requires  8  sq.  feet  of  ground. 
I  oa.  for  150  hills. 
I  oz.  sows  a  bed  1 G  feet  square. 
1  oz.  gives  2000  plants. 

I  oz.  gives  3000  plants,  and  requires  80  feet  of  ground. 
I  oz.  gives  20(10  plants,  and  requires  60  feet  of  ground. 
I  oz.     ♦'      7000      "        and  requires  seed  bed  of  120  feet. 
I  oz.  for  120  hills. 
I  oz.  BOWS  25  feet  of  row. 
loz.    "   200     "  " 

I  oz.     "    200     "  '♦ 

loz.     "   200     "  *• 

loz.     "   250     •'  " 

I  oz.  gives  2500  plants. 
1  quart  sows  120  feet  of  row. 
I  oz.  to  50  hills. 
1  oz.  to  100  feet. 
1  oz.  to  150  feet  of  row. 
1  oz.  to  200  feet  of  row, 
I  oz.  to  75  hills. 

I  oz  gives  2500  plants,  requiring  seed  bed  of  80  feet. 
I  oz.  to  2000  feet. 
1  oz.  to  50  hills. 


Table,  showing  the  quantity  of  seed 

Designation.  Quantity  of  seed. 

Wheat lJto2    bush, 

Barley l|  to  2^ 

Oats 2    to  4 

Rye 1    to  2 

Buckwheat.   f  to  1^ 

Millet 1    tolj 

Corn 1    to  2 

Beans 2    to  3 

Peas 2 J  to  3 J 

Hemp 1    to  l| 

Flax ito2 

Rice 2    to  2  J 


required  to  the  acre. 

Designation.  Quantity  of  seed. 

Broom  Corn 1  to  1^  bush. 

Potatoes 15  to  20 

Timothy 12  to  24  quarts 

Mustard 8  to  20  " 

Herd  Grass 12  to  16  ** 

Flat  Turnip 2  to    3  lbs. 

Red  Clover 10  to  16  " 

White  Clover 3  to   4  " 

BlueGraFs 10  to  15  '* 

Orchard  Grass 20  to  30  " 

Carrots 4  to    5  " 

Parsnips G  to    8  '* 


Table,  showing  the  quantity  per  acre  when  planted  in  rows  or  driUs. 


Broom  Corn 1    to  1 J  bush. 

Beans H  to  2 

Peas U  to  2 


Onions 4  to  5  lbs. 

Carrots 2  to  2^  " 

Parsnips 4  to  5    " 

Beets 4  to  6    " 


PROPORTIONS  OF  WEIGHT  TO  BULK. 


193 


DEPTH   OF   SOWING   WHEAT. 

Wheat  may  be  sowed  too  sliallow  as  well  as  too  deep. 
Tlie  depth  must  vary  with  the  soil.  A  tliinner  covering  is 
required  in  a  close,  thick,  heavy  soil,  than  in  one  light, 
gravelly,  and  sandy.  Experiments,  made  with  wheat  give 
the  following  results : — 


Seeds  sown 

to  the 

u 

depth 

u 
u 

of 

il 

1 

nch 

t( 

u 
it 
(( 
u 
11 

Appeared  above 
gronnd  in 

11  days. 

12  " 
18     " 

20  '• 

21  " 

22  " 

23  " 

No. 
that 

of  plants 
came  up. 

i 
all 

U                         41 

2 

t 

8 
i 
1 

i 

((                        (( 

3 

4 

(t                        (( 

5 

U                 (( 

6 

PROPORTIONS   OF  WEIGHT   TO  BULK. 

Table,  showing  the  weight  per  cubic  foot  of  various  sub- 
stances,  and  the  mtmher  of  cubic  feet  required  to  make  a 
ton  of  each. 


Material. 

LUs.  per 
cubic    II. 

Cub.  leet 
pen...,. 

-Malerial. 

Lbs.   per 
cubic  n. 

Cob.  ieel 
per  toil. 

METALS, 
naaf-  TroM                          

454 

485 
490 
549 
557 
.524 
709 
654 
456 

1203 
439 

1218 
848 
198 

165 
165 
171 
151 
130 
,  120 
174 
125 

4.9;3 

4.62 

4.6 

4.08 

4.02 

4.0:3 

3.15 

4.9 

5. 

2.64 
11. 

13.5 

13.5 

13.1 

14.8 

17. 

18.7 

12.8 

18. 

STONE,   ETC. 

Glass 

Sand 

180 

95 

167 

48 
46 
35 
44 
57 
52 
45 
70 
43 

;^ 

46 

62.5 

64.5 
.07529 
.a3689 

15. 

57. 

.59. 

12  44 

23  .56 

Steel       

Slate 

13.4 

Copper  cast 

WOOD. 
Ash 

nonnpr    WTontrht 

46 

Brass        

Beach 

48.7 

Lead 

Cedar 

64 

Silver     

Elm 

51. 

Tin 

Mahogany,   Spanish 

Oak,  English 

39.3 

add    

43. 

Zinc        

White  Oak,  American 

Live  Oak 

49. 

Platinum 

32 

IMne,  Pitch 

.51.6 

Wiite  Lead 

'•      Yellow 

59 

"      White 

66. 

STONE,   ETC. 

Poplar 

48. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Water,  fresh 

.salt 

;35.8 

Marble 

34.8 

Air* 

Steamt 

Sand  Stone 

Cork 

149.? 

Chalk        

Olive  oil 

39.a 

Clay 

Tallow 

*  At  the  level  of  the  sea. 


t  Not  imder  pressnre. 


CORN— pore:. 

According  to  the  Patent  Office  Reports,  and  the  results 
of  numerous  experiments,  1  bushel  of  corn  weighing  56  lbs. 
will  produce  10|-  lbs.  of  pork.  Throwing  off  ^  to  come  at 
the  net  weight,  gives  8f  lbs.  of  pork  as  the  product  of  1 
bushel  of  corn,  or  1  lb.  of  pork  as  the  product  of  6f  lbs.  of 
corn.  3f  lbs.  of  cooked  corn-meal  makes  1  lb.  of  pork. 
Assuming  that  it  requires  6f  lbs.  of  corn  to  make  1  lb.  of 
pork  (exclusive  of  the  labor  of  feeding  and  taking  care  of 
hogs),  the  relation  which  the  price  of  corn  bears  to  that 
of  pork  is  exhibited  in  the  following 

Table,  showing  the  price  of  pork  per  lb.  at  different  prices 
per  bushel  for  corn. 


Com  per  baah. 

Pork  per  pound. 

Com  per  bush. 

Pork  per  pound. 

Cents. 

Cents. 

Cents. 

Cents. 

12i        .... 

1.50 

38 

4.52 

15 

U8 

40 

4.16 

17 

2 

42 

5. 

20 

2.38          .    . 

45 

5.35 

22 

2.62 

50 

"^.95 

25 

2.96 

55 

6.54 

30 

3.5Y 

60 

T.14 

33 

3.92 

65 

•7.74 

35 

4. 

70 

8.57 

By  reversing  the  above  table  we  have  the  price  of  corn 
per  bushel  at  different  prices  per  lb.  for  pork.  The  use  of 
the  above  table  is  obvious.     For  example,  should  corn  be 


CORN POKK,  195 

selling  for  50  cents  per  bushel  and  pork  for  only  5  cents  per 
lb.,  it  would  be  most  profitable  to  sell  the  corn ;  but  should 
corn  be  selling  for  40  cents  per  bushel  and  pork  for  6  cents 
per  lb.,  it  would  be  most  profitable  to  reduce  the  corn  to 
pork,  and  sell  the  latter. 

To  Jmd  the  price  of  pork  per  lb,,  taking  tJie  price  of  com 
per  hushd  as  the  datum. 

Rule. — Divide  the  price  of  a  bushel  of  corn  by  8.40  (the 
number  of  lbs.  of  pork  produced  by  a  bushel  of  com),  and  the 
quotient  will  be  the  answer. 

Example. — When  corn  is  20  cents  per  bushel,  what  should 
be  the  price  of  pork  per  lb.  ? 

Solution.— 20.00  cents,   ^8.40  lbs.,  =2.38  cents.     Ans. 

To  find  the  price  of  corn  per  bushel,  taking  the  price  of 
pork  per  lb.  as  the  datum. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  price  of  a  lb.  of  pork  by  8.40  (the 
number  of  lbs.  of  pork  produced  by  a  bushel  of  com),  and 
the  product  will  be  the  answer. 

Example. — What  should  be  the  price  of  corn  per  bushel 
when  pork  is  selling  at  4J  cents  per  lb. 

Solution. — 4.50  cents,  x  8.40  lbs., =37.8  cents.     Ans. 

Note. — The  foregoing  table  and  rules  must  not  be  taken 
as  invariably  correct.  It  requires  but  little  reflection  to 
satisfy  the  farmer  that  the  proportions  and  results  exhibited 
by  them  must  be  influenced  by  many  conditions  and  causes, 
such  as  the  sample  of  corn  used,  the  constitution  and  breed 


196 


COKN — PORK. 


as  well  as  the  age  of  the  animal,  its  condition,  powers  of  di 
gestion,  habits,  health,  &c.  The  very  nature  of  the  subject 
precludes  the  possibility  of  exactly  defining  the  results  and 
[)roportions.  At  best  we  can  only  have  some  general^  aver- 
aye  results  and  rules.  The  foregoing  is  deemed  a  safe  gen- 
oral  average. 


LIFE  AND  INCREASE  OF  ANIMALS. 


To  keep  liens  in  winter. 
Provide — 
\.  A  comfortable  roost ; 

2.  Plenty  of  sand,  gravel  and  ashes,  dry^  to  play  in  ; 

3.  A  box  of  lime  ; 

4.  Boiled  meat,  chopped  fine,  every  two  or  three  days ; 


198                            LIFE    AND    INCKEASE    OF    ANIMALS. 

5.  Corn  and  oats,  which  will  be  best  if  boiled  tender ; 

6.  All  the  crumbs  and  potato  parings ; 

7.  Water,  neither  cold  nor  blood-warm. 

This   treatment   has   proved  quite  successful  in  a  great 
many  cases  where  the  formula  has  been  strictly  adhered  to, 
and  hens  which  without  it  gave  no  eggs,  with  it  immediately 
laid  one  each,  on  an  average,  every  two  days. 

Table,  showing  the  period  of  reproduction  and  gestation  of 
domestic  animals. 

DESIGNATION. 

Proper  age 
for  reproduc- 
tion. *^ 

4  years. 
6      " 
3      " 

3  " 
2       " 
2       " 
1       " 

1  " 

2  '' 
2      " 

4  " 

5  •■ 

2      " 
2       " 
1      •* 
1      «• 

6  months 
6      " 

6      " 

Period  of  the 
power  of  re- 
production in 
years. 

10  to  12 
12  to  15 
10  to  14 

8  to  10 

6 

7 

6 

6 

6 

5 

10  to  12 
12  to  15 
8 

8  to    9 

8  10    9 
5  to    6 

9  to  10 
5  to    6 
5  to    6 
5  to    6 
3  to    5 

No.  of  Fe- 
males for  one 
Male. 

PERIOD  or  GI 

Shortest  pe- 
riod, days. 

E8TATI0K  AKD 

Mean  peri- 
od, days. 

IKCU^TION 

Longest  pe- 
riod, days. 

419 

321 

161 

143 

163 

391 

335 
63 

66 

35 

24 
30 
32 
33 
20 
30 
25 
45 

Mare, 

stallion 

Cow 

Bull, 

Ewe 

Ram 

Sow, 

Boar, 

20  to  30 
30  to  40 
40  to  50 
6  to  10 
20  to  40 

5  to    6 

30 

12  to  15 

322 

240 

146 

109 

150 

366 

281 
55 

48 

20 

19 
24 
28 
27 
16 
25 
20 
40 

347 

283 

154 

115 

156 

380 

308 
60 

50 

28 

21 
26 
30 
30 
18 
28 
23 
42 

She  Goat, 

He  Goat, 

She  Ass, 

He  Ass 

She  Buffalo, . . 

Bitch, 

Dog 

She  Cat, 

He  Cat, 

Doe  Rabbit... 
Buck  Rabbit,. 

(Jock 

Hen  

Turkey, 

Duck, 

Goose,  .  • 

Pigeon, 

Pea  Hen 

Guinea  Hen,. 
Swan, 

LIFE 

AND 

INCREASE 

OF    ANIMALS.                            109 

Growth  and  life  of  animals. 

Man      grows 

for  20  years,  and  lives      90  or  100  years.                II 

The  Camel      " 

8     " 

40 

The  Horse       " 

5     " 

25                     '« 

The  Ox            " 

4     ♦* 

15  to     20       " 

The  Lion         " 

4    '♦ 

20 

The  Dog          " 

2     " 

12  to     14       " 

The  ('at           " 

1^  " 

9  or     10       '* 

The  Hare         " 

1     - 

8 

The  Guinea  pig 

7  months. 

and  lives    6  or      7       "                   11 

A  Table  showing  at  one  view 

)  when  Forty  Weeks  {the  period 

of  gestation  in  a  cow) 

will 

expire^  from  any  day  through- 

out  the  year. 

1 

Jan.      Oct. 

Keb.     Kov. 

March  Dec 

April 

Jan. 

May.    Feb. 

June.  March. 

1          8 

1 

1 

6 

1 

6 

1          5 

1          8 

2           9 

2           9 

2 

7 

2 

7 

2           6 

2           9 

3         10 

3        10 

3 

8 

3 

8 

3           7 

3         10 

4        11 

4        11 

4 

9 

4 

9 

4          8 

4         11 

5         12 

6        12 

5 

10 

5 

10 

5           9 

5         12 

6         13 

6         13 

6 

11 

6 

11 

6         10 

6         13 

7         14 

7        14 

7 

12 

7 

12 

7         11 

7         14 

8        15 

8         15 

8 

J3 

8 

13 

8         12 

8         15 

9        16 

9         16 

9 

14 

9 

14 

9         13 

9         16           1 

10        17 

10         17 

10 

15 

10 

15 

10        14 

10        17 

11        18 

11        18 

11 

16 

11 

16 

11         15 

11         18 

12        19 

12         19 

12 

17 

12 

17 

12         16 

12         19 

13        20 

13         20 

13 

18 

13 

18 

13         17 

13        20 

14        21 

14         21 

14 

19 

14 

19 

14         18 

14        21 

1           15         22 

15        22 

15 

20 

15 

20 

15         19 

15        22 

1           16         23 

16         28 

16 

21 

16 

21 

16         20 

16        23 

1           17         24 

17         24 

17 

22 

17 

22 

17         21 

17         24 

18        23 

18         25 

18 

23 

18 

23 

18         22 

18        25            1 

19        26 

19        26 

19 

24 

19 

24 

19         23 

19        26 

20        27 

20        27 

20 

25 

20 

25 

20        24 

20        27 

21         28 

21        28 

21 

26 

21 

23 

21         25 

21         28 

22         29 

22         29 

22 

27 

22 

27 

22        26 

22        29 

23         30 

23         30 

23 

28 

23 

28 

23         27 

23        30 

24        31 

Dec. 

24 

29 

24 

29 

24        28 

24        31 

Nov 

24          1 

25 

30 

25 

30 

March 

April. 
25          1 

25          1 

25          2 

26 

31 

26 

31 

25           1 

26          2 

26           3 

Jan. 

Feb 

26           2 

26          2 

27          3 

27          4 

27 

1 

27 

1 

27           3 

27          3 

28          4 

28          5 

28 

2 

28 

2 

28          4 

28          4            1 

29          5 

29           6 

29 

3 

29 

3 

29          5 

29          5            i 

30          6 

30 

4 

30 

4 

30          6 

30          6            1 

31          7 

31 

5 

31           7 

31           7            ! 

200 


LIFE    AND   INCREASE   OF    ANIMALS. 


Table  continued. 


July.  April. 

Aug. 

May. 

Sept. 

June. 

Oct. 

July. 

Nov. 

Aug 

Dec. 

Sept 

7 

1 

8 

1 

8 

1 

8 

1 

8 

1 

7 

2 

8 

2 

9 

2 

9 

2 

9 

2 

9 

2 

8 

3 

9 

3 

10 

3 

10 

3 

10 

3 

10 

3 

9 

4 

10 

4 

11 

4 

11 

4 

11 

4 

11 

4 

10 

5 

11 

5 

12 

5 

12 

5 

12 

5 

12 

5 

11 

G 

12 

6 

13 

6 

13 

6 

13 

6 

13 

6 

12 

7 

13 

7 

14 

7 

14 

7 

14 

7 

14 

7 

13 

8 

14 

8 

15 

8 

15 

8 

15 

8 

15 

8 

14 

9 

15 

9 

16 

9 

16 

9 

16 

9 

16 

9 

15 

10 

1() 

10 

17 

10 

17 

10 

17 

.10 

17 

10 

16 

11 

17 

11 

18 

11 

18 

11 

18 

11 

18 

11 

17 

12 

IS 

12 

19 

12 

19 

12 

19 

12 

19 

12 

18 

13 

19 

13 

20 

13 

2'» 

13 

20 

13 

20 

13 

19 

14 

20 

14 

21 

14 

21 

14 

21 

14 

21 

14 

20 

15 

21 

15 

22 

15 

22 

15 

22 

15 

22 

15 

21 

16 

2-' 

16 

23 

16 

23 

16 

23 

16 

23 

16 

22 

17 

t\\ 

17 

24 

17 

24 

17 

24 

17 

24 

17 

23 

18 

24 

18 

25 

18 

25 

18 

25 

18 

25 

18 

24 

19 

25 

19 

26 

19 

26 

19 

26 

19 

26 

19 

25 

20 

26 

20 

27 

20 

27 

20 

27 

20 

27 

20 

26 

21 

27 

21 

28 

21 

28 

21 

28 

21 

28 

21 

27 

22 

28 

22 

29 

22 

29 

22 

29 

22 

29 

22 

28 

23 

29 

23 

30 

23 

30 

23 

30 

23 

30 

23 

29 

24 

30 

24 

31 

July. 

24 

31 

24 

31 

24 

30 

May. 

June. 

24 

1 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

25 

1 

25 

1 

25 

2 

25 

1 

25 

1 

25 

1 

26 

2 

26 

2 

26 

3 

26 

2 

26 

2 

26 

2 

27 

3 

27 

3 

27 

4 

27 

3 

27 

3 

27 

3 

28 

4 

28 

4 

28 

5 

28 

4 

28 

4 

28 

4 

29 

6 

29 

5 

29 

6 

29 

5 

29 

5 

29 

5 

30 

6 

30 

6 

30 

7 

30 

6 

30 

6 

30 

6 

31 

7 

31 

7 

31 

7 

31 

7 

Growth  and  life  of  animals. 


AGE    OF   ANIMALS. 

To  jv)\d  the  age  of  a  horse. 

The  colt  is  born  with  12  grinders.  When  4  front  teeth 
have  made  their  appearance  the  colt  is  12  days  old,  and 
when  the  next  4  appear  it  is  four  weeks  old.  When  the 
corner  teeth  appear  it  is  eight  months  old,  and  when  the 
latter  have  attained  the  height  of  the  front  teeth  it  is  a  year 
old.  The  two  year  old  colt  has  the  kernel  (the  dark  sub- 
stance in  the  middle  of  the  tooth's  crown)  ground  or  worn 
out  of  all  the  front  teeth.  In  the  third  year  the  middle 
front  teeth  are  being  shifted,  and  when  three  years  old  these 
are  su])stituted  for  the  horse  teeth.  In  the  fourth  year  the 
next  4  are  shifted,  and  in  the  fifth  year  the  corner  teeth  are 
shifted.  In  the  sixth  year  the  kernel  is  worn  out  of  the  middle 
front  teeth,  and  the  bridle  teeth  have  now  attained  their  full 
growth.  At  seven  years  a  hook  has  been  formed  on  the 
corner  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw :  the  kernel  of  the  teeth  next 
at  the  middle  is  worn  out,  and  the  bridle  teeth  begin  to  wear 
off.  At  eight  years  of  age  the  kernel  is  worn  out  of  all  the 
lower  front  teeth,  and  begins  to  decrease  in  the  middle  up- 
per fronts.  In  the  ninth  year  the  kernel  lia's  wholly  disap- 
peared from  the  upper  middle  front  teeth,  the  hook  on  the 

corner  teeth  has  increased  in  size,  and  the  bridle  teeth  loose 

9* 


202  AGE   OF    ANIMALS. 

their  point.  In  the  tenth  year  the  kernel  has  worn  out  of 
the  teetli  next  to  the  middle  fronts  of  the  upper  jaw,  and 
in  the  eleventh  year  the  kernel  has  entirely  disappeared  from 
the  corner  teeth  of  the  same  jaw.  At  twelve  years  the  crowns 
of  all  the  front  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw  have  become  triangular, 
and  the  bridle  teeth  are  much  worn  down.  As  the  horse 
advances  in  age  the  gums  shrink  away  from  the  teeth,  which 
appear  long  and  narrow,  and  the  kernels  become  changed 
into  darkish  points.  Gray  hairs  increase  in  the  forehead 
and  the  chin  becomes  angular. 

A  modification  of  the  foregoing,  much  more  scientific  or 
systematic,  and  probably  quite  as  reliable,  is  the  classifica- 
tion of  Pessina,  a  distinguished  veterinary  surgeon  of  Ger- 
many. 

Its  principles  may  be  distinctly  understood  by  reference 
to  the  accompaning  cuts,  A,  B,  C,  and  D. 

A,  represents  the  corner  tooth  of  a  young  horse  ;  the  oth- 


FiG.  A. 

er  nippers'  vary  very  little  from  this  one  in  their  construc- 
tion and  form.' 

The  top  of  the  tooth  is  long  from  side  to  side,  and  the  ex- 
treme lower  end  is  long  from  front  to  rear.     The  manner  in 


AGE    OF    ANIMALS.  203 

which  the  shape  changes  as  we  go  farther  down  the  tooth  is 
represented  in  tigure  B,  where  cross  sections  at  different 
sections  are  shown. 


Fig.  B. 


The  horse's  tooth  is  worn  away  by  nse,  and  its  upper  sur- 
face assumes  the  form  of  these  different  sections  consecu- 
tively, according  to  the  extent  to  which  it  has  been  worn  off*. 
Of  course,  this  only  forms  a  general  rule  by  which  to  judge 
of  the  age  of  a  horse.  Cribbiters,  horses  feeding  chiefly  on 
very  old  dry  hay,  and  oats  mixed  with  grit,  and  horses  which 
are  continually  gnawing  their  mangers,  will  have  their  teeth 
worn  away  faster  than  will  those  which  are  fed  on  grass  and 
moistened,  cut,  and  ground  feed,  and  which  keep  their  teeth 
to  themselves  when  they  are  not  eating. 

Pessina's  table  of  indications  of  age  is  correct  for  the 
average  of  horses,  and  in  all  cases  is  sufficiently  so  for  gen- 
eral purposes. 

We  quote  the  following  frorn  Herbert's  hints  to  horse- 
keepers  : — 

''  At  jime  years  the  corners  are  up  even  with  the  other 
teeth;  the  mark  is  entirely  w<Tn  out  from  the  middle  nip- 
pers, and  partly  worn  from  the  next  pair  (fig.  C). 


204 


AGE   OF    AJSIMALS. 


Pia.  C. 


"  At  six  years  the  mark  is  almost  gone  from  the  second 
pair,  and  the  outer  edge  of  the  corner  teeth  is  worn  down. 

"  At  set^en  years  the  mark  is  entirely  gone  from  the  second 
pair,  and  the  edges  of  the  corner  teeth  are  worn  somewhat 
flat. 

"  At  eight  years  the  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw  are  worn  en- 
tirely flat,  the  mark  having  disappeared  from  all  of  them. 
The  form  of  the  surface  of  the  tooth  has  become  oval,  and 
the  central  enamel  is  long  from  side  to  side,  and  is  near  to 
the  front  of  the  tooth. 

"  At  nine  years  the  middle  nippers  are  rounded  on  the 
inner  side,  the  oval  of  the  second  pair  and  of  the  corner 
teeth  becomes  broader,  the  central  enamel  is  nearer  to  the 
inner  side,  and  the  marks  have  disappeared  from  the  teeth 
of  the  upper  jaw. 

"  At  ten.  years  the  second  pair  are  rounded  on  the  inner 
side,  and  the  central  enamel  is  very  near  to  the  inner  side. 


AGE    OF    ANIMALS.  205 

"  At  eleven  years  the  corner  teetli  are  rounded,  and  the 
central  enamel  becomes  very  narrow. 

*'  At  tv:)elve  years  the  nippers  are  all  rounded,  and  the  cen- 
tral enamel  has  entirely  disappeared  from  the  lower  jaw ; 
but  it  may  still  be  seen  in  the  upper  jaw. 

''At  thirteen  years  the  njiddle  nippers  commence  to  as- 
sume a  triangular  form  in  the  lower  jaw,  and  the  central 
enamel  has  entirely  disappeared  from  the  corner  teeth  of  the 
upper  jaw. 

"  At  fourteen  years  the  middle  nippers  have  become  tri- 
gular,  and  the  second  pair  are  assuming  that  form ;  the  cen- 
tral enamel  has  diminished  in  the  middle  nippers  of  the  up- 
per jaw. 

"  At  fifteen  years  the  second  pair  have  become  triangular 
(fig.  D) ;  the  central  enamel  is  still  visible  in  the  upper  jaw. 


"  At  sixteen  years  all  of  the  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw  have 
become  triangular,  and  the  central  enamel  is  entirely  re- 
moved from  the  second  pair  in  the  upper  jaw. 

"  At  seventeen  years  the  sides  of  the  triangle  of  the  mid- 
dle nippers  are  all  of  the  same  length ;  the  central  enamel 
has  entirely  disappeared  from  the  upper  teeth. 


206  AGE    OF    ANIMALS. 

"  At  eighteen  yeai-s  the  sides  of  the  triangle  of  the  middle 
nippers  are  longer  at  the  sides  of  the  teeth  than  in  front. 

"  At  nineteen  years  the  middle  nippers  become  flattened 
from  side  to  side  and  long  from  front  to  rear. 

"  At  twenty  years  the  second  pair  assume  the  same  form. 

"  At  twenty-one  years  all  of  the  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw 
have  become  flattened  from  side  to  side ;  the  greatest  diam- 
ter  having  become  exactly  the  reverse  of  what  it  was  in 
youth." 

TO   FIND   THE   AGE   OF   CATTLE. 

In  the  cow  the  horn  is  often  regarded  as  aftbrding,  by  the 
number  of  its  rings,  a  criterion  of  the  animal's  age.  The 
horn  of  a  heifer  remains  smooth  or  unprotuberant  till  the 
expiration  of  the  second  year  of  its  life.  A  circle  of  thicker 
matter,  or  sort  of  horny  button  then  begins  to  be  formed, 
which  is  completed  in  another  year ;  the  next  year  this  circle 
or  button  moves  from  the  head,  or  is  impelled  by  the  cylin- 
dric  growth  of  the  horn,  and  another  circle  or  button  begins 
to  be  formed,  which  after  another  twelve-month  is  also  im- 
pelled outward,  and  so  on  year  after  year  of  the  whole  life 
of  the  animal,  so  that  by  counting  the  number  of  rings  on 
the  cow's  horns,  and  adding  2  to  their  number,  its  age  is 
arrived  at. 

The  rings  on  the  hulVs  horns  do  not  begin  to  appear  until 
he  is  five  years  old,  so  that  to  arrive  at  his  age  we  must  add 
5  to  the  number  of  rings.     The  horn  of  the  ox  is  so  very 


AGE    OF    ANIMALS.  207 

strongly  modified  by  his  peculiar  condition,  as  to  be  totally 
unlike  that  of  the  bull,  the  rings  scarcely  appearing  at  all. 

The  above  rule  would  enable  one  to  tell  the  age  of  the  ani- 
mal with  unerring  certainty,  were  the  growth  of  the  horns 
in  each  animal  uniform  and  the  rings  distinct,  which  is  not 
uhvays  the  case;  the  rings  often  being  confused  and  indis- 
tinct, and  the  growth  of  the  horns  varying  in  difierent  ani- 
mals. Besides,  knavish  cattle  dealers  often  rasp  off  several 
of  the  rings  of  old  and  unsalable  cows,  and  so  smooth  the 
rest  of  the  horns  as  to  make  them  look  in  keeping  with 
their  pretensions. 

A  safer  rule  is  afforded  by  the  teeth.  At  birth  the  two  cen- 
tre teeth  (front)  protrude  through  the  gum ;  at  the  end  of 
the  second  week  the  second  pair  appear ;  at  the  end  of  the 
third  week  the  third  pair,  and  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  week 
the  fourth  and  last  pair.  The  wearing  of  these  teeth  now 
constitutes  the  only  guide  for  the  next  three  months,  at  the 
expiration  of  which  time  all  these  (which  are  called  the 
"  milk  teeth  ")  begin  to  diminish  in  size  and  shrink  away 
from  each  other,  which  process  continues  until  the  animal  is 
two  years  old,  when  the  new  teeth  begin  to  push  out  the 
slender  remnants  of  the  old  and  shrunken  ones.  At  the  end 
of  the  second  year  the  first  two  permanent  teeth  appear  in 
front;  at  three  years  the  second  pair  are  well  up:  at  four 
the  third  pair,  and  at  five  years  the  fourth  and  last  pair, 
have  appeared,  and  the  central  pair  are  beginning  to  become 
worn  down  :  at  six  years  the  last  pair  are  full  sized :  at  seven 


208  AGE   OF   AI^IMALS. 

years  the  dark  line  with  bony  boundery  appears  in  all  the 
teeth,  and  a  broad  circular  mark  appears  within  the  central 
pair :  at  eight  years  this  mark  appears  in  all  the  teeth  :  at 
nine  years  a  process  of  absorption  and  shrinkage,  similar  to 
that  which  reduced  the  tirst  teeth,  begins  to  take  place  in 
the  central  pair ;  at  ten  it  begins  with  the  second  pair ;  at 
eleven  with  the  third  pair,  at  twelve  with  the  fourth  pair. 
The  age  of  the  animal,  after  this  period  is  attained,  is  deter- 
mined by  the  degree  of  shrinkage  and  wearing  away  of  all 
the  teeth  in  the  order  of  their  appearance,  until  the  tifteenth 
year,  when  scarcely  any  teeth  remain. 

To  ascertain  the  age  of  sheej). 

The  age  of  sheep  may  be  known  by  the  front  teeth,  which 
are  8  in  number,  and  appear  the  lirst  year  all  of  a  size.  In 
the  second  year  the  two  middle  ones  fall  out  and  are  supplant- 
ed by  two  large  ones.  During  the  third  year  a  small  tooth 
appears  on  each  side.  In  the  fourth  year  the  large  teeth  are 
six  in  number.  In  the  fifth  year  all  the  front  teeth  are 
large,  and  in  the  sixth  year  the  whole  begin  to  get  worn. 

To  tell  the  age  of  goats. 

The  age  of  goats  is  ascertained  by  their  teeth  in  the  same 
manner  that  of  the  sheep  is,  and  by  the  annular  rings  on 
their  horns. 


COMPUTE  WEIGHT  OF  CATTLE. 


For  cattle  of  a  girth  of  from  6  to  7  feet,  allow  23  lbs.  to  the 
superficial  foot. 

For  cattle  of  a  girth  of  from  7  to  9  feet,  allow  31  lbs.  to  the 
superficial  foot. 

For  small  cattle  and  calves  of  a  girth  of  from  3  to  5  feet, 
allow  16  lbs.  to  the  superficial  foot. 

For  pigs,  sheep,  and  all  cattle  measuring  less  than  3  feet 
girth,  allow  11  lbs.  to  the  superficial  foot. 

Rule. — Ascertain  the  girth  in  inches  back  of  the  should- 
ers, and  the  length  in  inches  from  the  square  of  the  buttock  to 
a  point  even  with  the  point  of  the  shoulder-blade.  Multiply 
the  girth  by  the  length,  and  divide  the  product  by  144  for 
the  superficial  feet,  and  then  multiply  the  superficial  feet  by 


210  COMPUTE   WEIGHT   OF   CATTLE. 

the  number  of  lbs.  allowed  as  above  for  cattle  of  different 
girtlis,  and  the  product  will  be  the  number  of  lbs.  of  beef, 
veal,  or  pork  in  the  four  quarters  of  the  animal.  To  find 
the  number  of  stone  divide  the  number  of  lbs.  by  14. 

Example. — What  is  the  computed  weight  of  beef  in  a 
steer,  whose  girth  is  6  feet  4  inches,  and  length  5  feet  3 
inches  ? 

Solution. — 76  inches,  girth,  x  63  inches,  length, =4788  -f- 
144=33J  square  feet,  x  23=764f  lbs.,  or  64|-  stone.     Ans. 

I^OTE. — When  the  animal  is  but  half  fattened  a  deduction 
of  14  lbs.  in  every  280,  or  one  stone  in  every  20  must  be 
made;  and  if  very  fat,  one  stone  for  every  20  must  be 
added. 

Where  great  numbers  of  cattle  are  annually  bought  and 
sold  under  circumstances  that  forbid  ascertaining  their 
weight  with  positive  accuracy,  the  compute  weight  may  be 
thus  taken  with  approximate  exactness — at  least  with  as 
much  accuracy  as  is  necessary  in  the  aggregate  valuation  of 
stock.  No  rules  or  tables  can,  however,  be  at  all  times  im- 
plicitly relied  on,  as  there  are  many  circumstances  connected 
with  the  build  of  the  animal,  the  mode  of  fattening,  its  con- 
dition, breed,  &c.,  that  will  influence  the  measurement,  and 
consequently  the  weight.  A  person  skilled  in  taking  the 
compute  weight  of  stock  soon  learns,  however,  to  make 
allowances  for  all  these  circumstances. 


COMPUTE   WEIGHT   OF   CATTLE. 


211 


The  following  table  is  compiled  from  two  English  works 
on  the  subject : — 


Girth, 
ft.   in. 

5     0    

5     0   

5     6   

5  6   

6  0 

Length, 
ft.  in. 

3     6 

4     0   

3     9   

4     0 

. .    4     6   

Eenton 
stone 

21 

24 

27 

34 

38 

s  Table. 
.    lb. 

0 

0   

1  

4 

8   .    .. 

Gary's  Table, 
stone,  lb. 

21     00 

24     00 

27     00 

34     07 

....     38     11 

6     0 

5     0 

43 

45 

1 

9   

0   

6 

5 

43     00 

6     6 

4     6 

...     45     07 

6  6   

7  0 

4     9   

5     6 

48 

64 

48     00 

64     07 

7     0   

6     0     

70 

70     03 

8     0 

6     6 

. .      .  .     99 

8   

5 

99     12 

8     0   

7     0 

107 

107     06 

FOOD  OF  ANIMALS. 


Table,  showing  the  comparative  difference  hetioeen  good  hay 
and  the  substances  ^mentioned  helow^  as  food  for  stock — 
heing  the  results  of  exjperiments. 


10  lbs. 

of  hay  are  equal  to 

10  lbs. 

of  hay  are  equal  to 

8  to  10 

lbs. 

clover  hay. 

80  to  35 

lbs. 

mangold  wurtze] 

45  to  50 

(( 

green  clover. 

45  to  50 

(( 

turnips. 

40  to  60 

« 

wheat  straw. 

20  to  30 

K 

cabbage. 

20  to  40 

(( 

barley  straw. 

3  to    6 

U 

peas  and  beans. 

20  to  40 

u 

oat  straw. 

5  to    6 

n 

wheat. 

10  to  15 

(( 

pea  straw. 

5  to    6 

a 

barley. 

20  to  25 

If 

potatoes. 

4to    •? 

n 

oats. 

25  to  30 

u 

carrots  (red). 

5  to  n 

a 

Indian  com. 

40  to  45 

u 

"       (white). 

2  to    4 

u 

oil  cake. 

FOOD    OF    ANIMALS.  213 

Note. — In  the  use  of  the  above  table  much  of  course 
will  depend 'upon  the  quality  of  the  sample,  the  age  and 
constitution  of  the  animal,  and  the  form  in  which  the  food 
is  administered.  Much  also  depends  upon  a  change  of  food, 
and  a  dv^e  admixture  of  the  different  kinds. 

Table,  showing  the  comparative  difference  between  good  hay 
and  the  articles  mentioned  helow,  as  food  for  stock — being 
the  mean  of  experiment  and  theory. 


100  lbs.  of  hay  are  equal  to 

100  lbs.  of  hay  are  equal  to 

275  lbs. 

green  Indian  corn. 

54 

lbs. 

rye. 

442     " 

rye  straw. 

46 

wheat. 

360     '■ 

wheat     " 

59 

oats. 

164     " 

oats        ** 

45 

peas  and  beans  mixed. 

180     " 

barley     '* 

64 

buckwheat. 

153     " 

pea 

57 

Indian  corn. 

200     " 

buckwheat  straw. 

68 

acorns. 

201     " 

raw  potatoes. 

105 

wheat  bran. 

175     " 

boiled     " 

109 

rye         " 

339     " 

mangold  wurtzeL 

167 

wheat,  pea,  and  oat  chaff. 

504     " 

turnips. 

179 

rye  and  barley,  mixed. 

300     " 

carrots. 

Note. — It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  nutritive  effects 
of  food  upon  the  animal  are  varied  by  numberless  causes, 
such  as  the  animal's  power  of  digestion  and  appropriation, 
its  condition,  shelter,  air,  water,  exercise,  &c.  But  all  else 
being  equal,  the  nutritive  qualities  of  the  articles  mentioned 
are  in  the  above  proportions. 

The  results  of  numerous  experiments,  reported  by  indivi- 
duals and  Agricultural  Associations,  show,  that  each  100 
lbs.  of  live  weight  of  the  animal  requires  of  hay  or  its 
equivalent,  per  day,  as  follows  : — 

"Working  horses •  •  •   3.08  lbs. 

oxen 2.40     » 


214 


FOOD   OF   AlflMALS. 


Fatting  oxen 5.00  lbs. 

"         "  whenfat 4.00  " 

Milch  cows from  2.25  to  2.40  " 

Dry         " 2.42  " 

Young  growing  cattle 3.08  " 

Steers 2.84  '• 

Pigs 3.00  " 

Sheep 3.00  " 

Elephant* 3.12  " 

In  the  OX,  the  daily  loss  of  muscle  or  tissue  requires  that 
he  should  consume  20  to  24  ounces  of  gluten  or  albumen, 
which  will  be  supplied  by  any  of  the  following  weights  of 
vegetable  food : — 


Meadow  hay 20  lbs. 

Clover  haj 16     " 

Oat  straw 110     " 

Pea  straw 12     " 

Potatoes 60     " 

Carrots TO     " 


Turnips 120  lbs. 

Cabbage 70     " 

Wheat  or  other  white  grain.     11     " 

Beans  or  peas fi     *' 

Oilcake 4    " 


Or  instead  of  any  one  of  these,  a  mixture  of  several  may 
be  given  with  the  best  results.  But  if  the  due  proportion 
of  nitrogenous  food  be  not  given,  the  ox  will  lose  his  mus- 
cular strength  and  will  generally  fail.  So  with  growing  and 
fattening  stock  of  every^  description ;  the  proportion  of  each 
of  the  kinds  of  food  required  by  the  animal  must,  in  prac- 
tice, be  adjusted  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  fed. 

It  is  not  strictly  correct  that  this  or  that  kind  of  vegetable 
is  more  fitted  to  sustain  animal  life  simply  because  of  the 
large  proportion  of  nitrogen  or  gluten  it  contains ;  it  is 
wisely  provided,  however,  that,  along  with  this  nitrogen,  all 

*  Mr.  Bamum's  elephant,  weighing  4700  lbs.,  was  found  to  oonsume  100 
lbs.  of  hay  and  1  bushel  of  oats  per  day. 


FOOD    OF    ANIMALS.  215 

plants  contain  a  certain  proportion  of  starch  or  sugar,  and 
of  saline  or  earthy  matter — all  of  which  are  required  in  a 
mixture  which  will  most  easily  sustain  an  animal  in  a  healthy 
condition  ;  so  that  the  proportion  of  nitrogen  in  a  substance 
may  be  considered  as  a  rough  practical  index  of  the  propor- 
tion of  the  more  important  saline  and  earthy  ingredients 
also. 

Table,  showing  the  effects  produced  hy  an  equal  quantity 
of  the  following  substances,  as  food  for  sheep. 

Increased  weight  of       Produced        Produced 
living  animal  in  WooL  Tallow. 

Lbs.  Designation.  Lbs.  Lbs.  Lbs. 

1000  potatoes,  raw  with  salt 46^  6^  12^ 

"            "         '*     without  salt 44  6^  ll| 

"    mangel- wurtzel,  raw ..      .  88^  5 J  6^ 

"    wheat 155  14  bU 

"    oats 146  10  42i 

"    barley. 136  U\  60 

"    peas 134  14^  41 

••    rye,  with  salt 133  14  35 

"       "     without  salt 90  12  43 

"    corn  meal,  wet 129  13^  17^ 

♦*    buckwheat 120  10  83 

Note. — The  above  are  the  results  of  numerous  experi- 
ments by  De  Raumer. 


DECEEASE  AND  EXPECTATIOlSr  OF  LIFE. 


Table,  showing  the  decrement  and  expectation  of  humxMi  life. 


3 

1 

m 

;3 

S 

t 

1 

CO  a 

> 

3 

a 

1*1 

6 

i 

fes 

pi 

© 

s 

£«5 

Sc| 

± 

i 

fe<£ 

■Sal 

^i 

^i 

be 

< 

-1 

«2 

o 

38 

60 

< 

a 

q2 

At  birth. 

4893 

1264 

28.15 

34 

1772 

30.24 

~68 

772 

37 

12.43 

1 

3629 

274 

« 

35 

1737 

35 

28.22 

69 

735 

37 

(C 

2 

3355 

188 

i( 

36 

1702 

35 

(( 

70 

698 

37 

10.06 

3 

3167 

132 

<( 

87 

1667 

35 

a 

71 

601 

37 

« 

4 

3035 

84 

<( 

38 

1632 

35 

72 

624 

37 

(i 

6 

2951 

68 

40.87 

39 

1597 

85 

(( 

73 

687 

37 

it 

6 

2893 

65 

<( 

40 

15G2 

35 

26.04 

74 

649 

37 

n 

7 

2838 

47 

<( 

41 

1527 

35 

(( 

75 

511 

37 

7.83 

8 

2791 

40 

<< 

42 

1492 

35 

<i 

76 

474 

37 

it 

9 

2751 

36 

(( 

43 

1457 

35 

it 

77 

437 

37 

tt 

10 

2715 

28 

39.23 

44 

1423 

34 

a 

78 

400 

37 

tt 

11 

2687 

27 

« 

45 

1396 

27 

23.92 

79 

3G3 

37 

it 

12 

2660 

27 

<• 

46 

1369 

27 

it 

80 

326 

35 

5.85 

13 

2633 

27 

i( 

47 

1842 

27 

a 

81 

291 

34 

a 

14 

2606 

27 

« 

48 

1315 

27 

it 

82 

257 

34 

it 

15 

2579 

42 

36.  IG 

49 

1810 

27 

(( 

83 

223 

34 

tt 

16 

2537 

43 

♦' 

50 

1288 

27 

21.16 

84 

189 

34 

it 

17 

2494 

43 

ii 

51 

1261 

27 

tt 

85 

155 

21 

4.57 

18 

2451 

43 

it 

62 

1234 

27 

it 

86 

134 

21 

(( 

19 

2408 

43 

11 

63 

1207 

27 

u 

87 

113 

21 

tt 

20 

2365 

43 

34.21 

64 

1180 

27 

ii 

88 

92 

20 

it 

21 

2322 

42 

*t 

55 

1153 

27 

18.25 

89 

72 

20 

tt 

22 

2280 

42 

(( 

66 

1126 

27 

it 

90 

62 

8 

3.73 

23 

2238 

42 

(< 

57 

1099 

27 

« 

91 

44 

7 

(( 

24 

2196 

42 

it 

68 

1072 

27 

tt 

92 

37 

7 

ti 

25 

2154 

40 

32.32 

69 

1045 

27 

it 

93 

30 

7 

It 

26 

2114 

38 

<> 

60 

1018 

27 

15.43 

94 

23 

7 

tt 

27 

2076 

38 

(t 

61 

991 

27 

<( 

95 

16 

6 

1.62 

28 

2038 

38 

it 

62 

964 

27 

it 

96 

10 

5 

it 

29 

2000 

38 

(i 

63 

937 

27 

n 

97 

6 

3 

tt 

30 

1962 

38 

30.24 

64 

910 

27 

ii 

98 

2 

1 

It 

31 

1924 

38 

>( 

65 

883 

37 

12.43 

99 

1 

1 

tt 

32 

1886 

38 

(( 

66 

846 

37 

(( 

33 

1848 

88 

«< 

67 

809 

37 

(( 

The  above  table,  originally  compiled  by  Dr.  Wiggleworth, 
of  New  England,  after  many  years  of  careful  observation 
and  statistical  research,  exhibits  the  average  yearly  decrease 


HUMAN   LIFE. 


217 


of  life  out  of  a  given  number  born,  and  the  expectation  of 
reaching  a  certain  age  deduced  from  that  decrease  as  the 
datum.  Among  the  many  similar  tables  that  have  been 
constructed,  it  is  perhaps  the  most  accurate.  It  received 
the  cautious  scrutiny  and  revision  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
Massachusetts,  and  was  adopted  by  it  {see  Easterbrook  m. 
Hojpgood^  10  Mass.  Rejports^  313)  as  the  rule  in  estimating 
the  value  of  life  estates. 

Explanation. — Opposite  the  age  of  the  individual,  under 
the  column  headed  "  Expectation  of  Life,  &c.,"  will.be  found 
the  additional  number  of  years  he  may  reasonably  expect  to 
live.  Thus  a  man  40  years  of  age  may  reasonably  expect 
to  live  26.04  years  longer. 

For  the  purpose  of  comparison  with  observations  in  Eu- 
rope, St.  Maur's  Table  is  subjoined,  taken  from  observa- 
tions in  Paris  and  the  country  around  it. 


St.   Maue's  Table. 


Of  24,000  bom 
IT, 540  attain  to 
15,162 


14,177 
13,477 
12,968 
12,562 
12,255 
12,015 
11,861 
11,405 
10,909 
10,259 


2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

"10 
"  15 
"20 
"25 


years. 


9,544  attain  to  30  years. 

8,770       "       ■   "  ■       ' 

7,729 

7,008 

6,197 

5,375 

4,564 

3,450 

2,544 

1,507 

807 

291 


"35 

"40 
"45 
"  50 
"55 
"60 
"65 
"70 
"75 
"  80 
"85 


10 


218 


COMPOUND   INTEREST. 


103  attain  to  90  years. 


71 
63 

47 
40 
33 

Explanation. 


91 
92 
93 
94 
95 


18 

16 

8 

6  or  7 


23  attain  to    96  years. 


u     9Y  u 

"     98  " 

"     99  '' 
"  100 


ii 


-To  ascertain  by  the  above  table  what 
probability  there  is  that  a  man  of  a  given  age  will  attain 
to  any  other  age,  make  the  number  opposite  the  latter  age 
the  numerator  and  the  number  opposite  the  former  age  the 
denominator,  and  the  fraction  will  express  the  probability 
sought  for. 

Example. — What  probability  is  there  that  a  man  of  30 
will  attain  the  age  of  70  years  ? 

Solution.— Opposite  70  find  2,544=  318 

"  30  "  9,544=1193  Ans,  That  is 
to  say,  he  has  318  chances  out  of  1193  of  living  to  70. 

COMPOUND   INTEREST. 

Table,  showing  iJie  amount  of  $1  for  any  number  of  years 
froin  1  to  24,  at  5  and  ^  jper  cent.^  compound  interest. 


Years. 

6  per  cent 

6  per  cent 

Ye&ra. 

5  per  cent 

6  per  cent 

1 

1.05 

1.06 

13 

1.88564 

2.13292 

2 

1.1025 

1.1236 

14 

1.97993 

2.26090 

3 

1.15763 

1.19101 

15 

1.07892 

2.39655 

4 

1.21550 

1.26247 

16 

1.18287 

2.64035 

6 

1.27628 

1.33822 

17 

1.29201 

2.69277 

6 

1.34009 

1.41851 

18 

1.40661 

2.85433 

7 

1.40710 

1.50363 

19 

1.52695 

3.02559 

8 

1.47745 

1.59384 

20 

1.65329 

3.20713 

9 

1.55132 

1.68947 

21 

1.78596 

3.39956 

10 

1.62889 

1.79084 

22 

1.92526 

3.60353 

11 

1.71033 

1.89829 

23 

1.07152 

3.81974 

12    J 

1.79585 

1.01219 

24 

1.22509 

4.04893 

ANNUITIES. 


219 


Explanation. — Opposite  the  number  of  years  in  the 
column  under  the  rate  per  cent.,  will  be  found  the  amount 
of  $1,  with  the  compound  interest  included  for  the  time 
given.  Should  the  amount  of  any  given  sum  with  the 
compound  interest  at  a  given  rate  per  cent,  for  a  given  time 
be  required,  multiply  the  amount  found  in  the  column  un- 
der the  given  rate  per  cent.,  and  opposite  the  given  time, 
by  the  sum  at  interest  so  given,  and  tlie  product  will  be  the 
answer. 

Example. — What  will  be  the  amount  of  $150  at  compound 
interest  at  the  rate  of  5  per  cent,  for  10  years'? 

Solution.— 1.62889  x  150=$24:4:.33.35.     Ans. 


ANNUITIES. 
Table,  showing  the  present  worth  qf  $1  annuity/  at  6  and  6 
per  cent,  compound  interest  for  any  number  of  yea/rs 
from  1  to  34. 


Year. 

6  per  cent. 

6  per  cent. 

Years. 

5  per  cent. 

6  per  cent. 

1 

0.95238 

0.94339 

18 

11.68958 

10.82760 

2 

1.85941 

1.83339 

19 

12.08532 

11.15811 

3 

2.72325 

2.67;.01 

20 

12.46221 

11.46992 

4 

3.54695 

3.46510 

21 

12.82115 

11.76407 

5 

4.32948 

4.21236 

22 

13.16300 

12.04158 

6 

5.07569 

4.91732 

23 

13.48807 

12.30338 

7 

5.78(j37 

5.58238 

24 

13.79864 

12.55035 

8 

6.46321 

6.20979 

25 

14.09394 

12.78335 

9 

7. 107^2 

6.80169 

26 

14.37518 

13.00316 

10 

7.72173 

7.36>*08 

27 

14.64303 

13.21053 

11 

8.30641 

7.88G87 

28 

14.89813 

13.40616 

12 

8.86325 

8.38381 

29 

15.14107 

13.59072 

13 

9.39357 

8.85.68 

30 

15.37245 

13.76483 

14 

9.898G4 

9.2949S 

31 

15.59281 

13.92908 

15 

10.379f)() 

9.71225 

32 

15.80268 

14.08398 

16 

10.83777 

10.10589 

33 

16.00255 

14.22917 

17 

11.27407 

10.47726 

34 

16.19290 

14.36613 

For  explanation  and  example  see  Compound  Interest  above. 


220 


INTEREST   TABLE. 


I 


o  *_ 

s  « 


s 

CO  A 
cc  CO 
o  o 

£-  00 

CD  i>- 

q  q 

IS 

CO  o 
CO   lO 

O   OS 

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m 

X>    r-l 

CO    r-t 

(M  CO 

oo 

CO  CO 

CO  OS 

cc  oo 

CO  CO 

Xr-  00 
cDXr- 
CD  ir^ 

1 

o  o 

CO  OS 

oq 

C   00 

q  q 

XT'   00 
CO  i- 

q  q 

CO  ir- 

00    05 

9  9 

rH   1-1 

xr-  CO 

l-H    CO 

CO  CD 

CO   iO 

o  »o 

»o  X^- 

rH  rH 

xr-  >«* 

CO  OS 

cc  o> 

CO  00 

cc  CO 

1 

o 

o  o 

CO  CO 

9^ 

^  o 

q  q 

o  o 
oq 

r-  00 

9  9 

11 

O  CM 
O  CM 

lg 

CO  o 

O  lO 
iO  Xr- 

CO  CO 

o  o 

(M   CO 

q  q 

O  xr- 

CO  <M 

oq 

x^  00 
CO  x:- 

9  9 

O  CO 

cx)  OS 

9  9 

CO  OS 
cr.  o 

lg 

o  o 

CM  -^ 

CO  CO 
CO  o 

Xr-  r-» 
CO  r-l 
CM   CO 

? 

q  q 

CO  Jr- 

q  q 

O    r-l 

oq 

99 

00  00 
»0  CO 

9  9 

O'  (M 

X:-  00 

9  9 

CM   O 

99 

CC  OS 

OS  o 

»0  CM 

O  CM 

x:-  «2 

<-<  cc 

CO  CM 

cc  xr- 

<M   (?5| 

§ 

O   CO 

q  q 

O  iO 

CO  CO 

q  q 

O  £- 

99 

O  00 

9  9 

CD  ti 

9  9 

O  (M 

99 

o  .-c 

00  OS 

9  9 

11 

oxr- 

O  <-t 

CM   CM 

s 

00  o 

i-  OS 

q  q 

<M   CM 

q  q 

CO  Oi 

99 

(M  Oi 

9  9 

»0  lO 

9  9 

c  o 

X-  00 
CO  X- 

9  9 

iO  xr- 
xr-  oo 

9  9 

cc  X:- 

00  OS 

9  9 

CO  OS 

o  o 
q  q 

q  q 

w    CO 
CM  C^ 

q  q 

ir-  .—1 

CO 

CO   C2 
CO   CO 

9  9 

O  xr- 

9  9 

SI 

CO  CM 

99 

9  9 

xr-  CO 

CD  Xr- 

9  9 

CO  CO 
cc   iO 

s 

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q  q 

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<M  C<l 

9  9 

lO  OS 
CM  CM 

9  9 

c  »o 

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9  9 

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CO  -* 

99 

c  x> 

99 

»0  CM 

9  9 

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99 

sS 

cc  •«*• 

i.--  00 

,:?  tM 

q  q 

CO  CO 

9  9 

r~  OS 

9  9 

CM  (M 

9  9 

CO  x^- 

CM   (M 

9  9 

ii 

o  io 

CO  CO 

9  9 

CO  OS 
CO  cc 
9  9 

x-oo- 
CO  Xr- 

9  9 

© 

PN 

io 

IT-   00 

99 

O  i^ 

9  9 

9  9 

9  9 

CO  CD 

9  9 

i2^ 

o  o 

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o  o 

cc  OS 

fli 

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CO  CO 

oq 

II 

11 

XT-   OS 

99 

OS  O 

9  9 

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rH   rH 

9  9 

9  9 

CO  CO 

9  9 

O  X:- 

9  9 

o  o 

QK) 

CO  CO 

oo 

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11 

00   Oi 

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SB 

r-^    CM 

o  o 

CM   Tf 

o  o 

CO  CD 

o  o 

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CM  CO 

o  o 

l» 

§1 

(M   CO 
OO 

CO  -«J< 

»0  IO 

CO  xr- 

O  O 

o  o 

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O  O 

o  o 

00  o 

o  o 

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9  9 

CM  Tt< 

o  o 

cc  x^ 

CM  CM 

O'  o 

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ii 

CO  CO 

o  o 

»0  CO 

o  o 

X>  00 

o  o 
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OS  O 
O  O 

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9  9 

O  CO 
CM  CM 

O  O 

WJ 

§1 

9§ 

tM   CO 

99 

o  o 

S8 

9  9 

lO  CO 

o  o 
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9  9 

xr-  C30 

o  o 
9  9 

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00  o 

is 

Xr-  OS 

9  9 

^ 

§§ 

fM   3^ 

o  o 
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CO  CO 

o  o 
9  9 

o  o 

rfH  lO 

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99 

lO  CD 

o  o 
9  9 

CD  xr- 

99 

ii 

CO  CO 

o  o 

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o§ 

II 

.-H    (M 

o  o 
o  o 

(M  (M 

o  o 
O'  o 

(M   CO 

o  o 

CO  CO 

is 

o  O 
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ii 

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9  9 

9) 

§i 

§1 

r-(    (M 

O  O 
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CM  (M 

o  o 
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o  o 
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CO  CC 

g§ 

cc  cc 

CO  tJI 

xr-  oo 

88 

11 

oS 

II 

§§ 

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o  o 

o  o 

rH   (M 

o  o 
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rH   ^ 

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CM   (M 

o  o 
o  o 

U 

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N 

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MS 

^ 

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QC 

^ 

INTEREST   TABLE. 

221 

8S 

O  I— 1 

CO  »o 

O  CC 
O  00 

O  CO 

(?4d 

CO   CJ 
00   (N 

CO  i:- 

X-   r-^ 

CO    rH 
CO    1-H 

(^i  CO 

CO  00 

:■-.  OS 

CO  00 
CO  00 
CO  CO 

CO  x:^ 

O  CO 

8^ 

CO  o' 
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CO   OS 
CO    "<*< 

co'  oi 

s    1 

it! 

all 
11  til 

Pi 

|1  If! 
II  iff 

m 

tiiil 

ill 
nm 

fe  CO 
O  GO 
JO   O 

xr-  00 

cot- 

CO  (>J 
CO  i:- 

CO   35 

o  x^- 

O  CO 

X:-  r-t 

CO    CO 
I-H    CO 
I-H    t-H 

CO  CO 
CO   JO 
CO   JO 

c  o 

JO  X>; 

M 

CO   OS 
00  00 
CO   00 
CO  CO 

o  ,o 

O  00 

jo'  jo' 

CO  x:- 
cdx:^ 

00  CO 

^^ 

CO  OS 

11 

ir-  00 

OS  o 
'  .-4 

q?? 

§8 

c;  JO 
CO  »o 

r-5    r-H 

lg 

coS 

8§ 

JO  CO 
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co'  Xr^ 

8g 

JO  xr- 

x>  oo' 

o  «o 

CO  (M 
CO  (M 
JO  CO 

ir-  00 

CO  £- 

O  CO 

CO  OS 

qq 

xr-  -* 

8^ 

ii 

CO  JO 

i-   rH 

ei  CO 

8S 

O  CO 

CO   CO 
CO  C-1 
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icj  CO* 

XT-  00 
coxr- 
coxr- 

«o'x> 

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CO    r-( 

XT-  CO 
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00  c:s 

o^  OS 

CO  00 

q  q 

gs 

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Xr-  I-H 

CO  CO 

1-H   CO 

CO  01 
CO  CO 
cox:- 
Cq  CO 

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»o  q 

CO  "rP 

X:-  "* 

TjJ    lO 

?S8 

CO  00 
jo"  CO 

gg 

CO  CO 

8S 

O  CO 
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JO  JO 

CO  i> 

O  xr- 
*^  00 

C-  CO 
O  CO 
00  OS 

gg 

OS  q 

o  X-- 

O  CO 

O  CO 
O  CO 

q  '^. 

Co'  CO 

CO  co' 

8S 
q  q 

C   CO 
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q  °° 

JO  JO 

CO    05 
CO  00 
00  CO 

r-H   CO 

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O  00 
JO  o 

QO  00 
JO  O 

XT-   00 

CO  X:- 

q  ^ 

o  »o 
JO  x:- 

J>  00 

CO  CO 

CO  X:- 
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X>  -rt* 

CO  -«i< 

CO  OS 

t-H    I-I 

O  x:- 

O  .-1 
»0  OS 

co'  d 

CO  OS 
CO  00 
00  00 
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Xr-  rH 

«0  CO 
r-l   00 

O  CO 
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C<1  0| 

J>   r-l 

^cSS 

£0  CO 

CO  (M 
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xr-  00 

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q  ^ 

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o  zo 
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CO  (T. 
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CO  00 
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■     gs 

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JO  Oi 

o  o 
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CO  -<jj 

8S 

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gs 

q  ^. 

gg 

JO  x^- 

8S? 

q  CO 
(M  ci 

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§  3 

co'  ci 

8S 

•-4   1— 1 

CO  CO 
CO  o 

1-t   I-H 

I— 1    I-H 

O  CO 

^^ 

CO   Ol 

CO  X:- 

X:-  I-H 

CO   CO 

o  o 

C  JO 

CO  so 

CO   OS 
CO  CO 
CO  CO 

xr-  CO 
coxr- 
«o  .t- 

o  x> 

82 

CO   CO 
00   JO 
CO  JO 

S4: 

CO  OS 

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o  o 

X:-  00 

CO  t- 

o  o 

00  oi 

q  q 

IS 

X>-  CO 

rH   CO 

IS 

gg 

l->    T-H 

co-os 

CO  00 

CO   CO 

O  CO 
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JO  JO 

x:-  * 
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CO  X- 

CO  CO 

CO  x:- 

00  OS 

JO   C<J 
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is 

JO  £- 

q  *"! 

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lg 

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CO  CO 

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q  q 

£-  00 

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l§ 

CO   CO 
CO  o 

t-   I-H 

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8S 

CO   CO 

CO  x:- 

CO  ■* 

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00  00 

8§ 

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(M   JO 

00   OS 
O  O 

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12 

co  CO 

CC  00 

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88 

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82 

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CO  OS 

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rH    CO 

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gg 

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q  9 

CO  CO 

33 

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CO  x:- 

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ii 

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§8 

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88 

X^  00 
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o  o 

IS 

coco 

CO  JO 

22 

11 

o  o 

00  o 

q  q 

22 
q  q 

o  o 

CO  CO 

q  q 

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I-H  r-< 

o  o 

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o  o 

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88 

x^oo 

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CO  xr- 

00  OS 
O  C: 

§ 

T 

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1 

9 

i 

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^^^ 

^"~" 

^^^ 

■"^" 

■"■■" 

^■■" 

■■^^ 

^^~" 

223 


INTEREST. 


\^ 
O 

Ah 

> 
Eh 

^2; 


o 

i 


Ah 

o 

H 


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1        S5 
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1  i-tr-,N4  3<icOTji'*o»0^>«x-*4o;:5'MCO->*<0> 
1                                                         ^—  TsicocO'^'^roo 

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1    rH,-|iM(MWjC0-rhO>0«C>>J^-t<^=y5'OOC0-M00 
1                                                                                           r-H   r^    1^4   (M    rO   -^  Tj<  O   O 

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1                                                                                           r-l— ■->J(>l?0M'^lO»O 

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1    OrH^C<IC<IC0C0-*'^uS05-rt^00C0C0C<lt^— <CD 
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Oi— (rHr-»i— lC<IC^lC<ICOCO<OC>CO'*t^OeO«OOS 

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224 


TABLE   OF   WAGES. 


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TABLE    OF    WAGES.                                               225 

Table  continued. 

$18. 

$19. 

$20. 

$21. 

$22. 

$23. 

$24. 

$25. 

1 

.69 

.73 

.77 

.81 

.84 

.88 

.92 

.96 

2 

1.38 

1.46 

1.54 

1.62 

1.70 

1.77 

1.84 

1.92 

3 

2.08 

2.19 

2.31 

2.42 

2.54 

2.65 

2.74 

2.88 

4 

2.77 

2.92 

3.08 

3.23 

3.38 

^;.54 

3.70 

3.85 

6 

3.46 

3.65 

3.85 

4.04 

4.24 

4.42 

4.62 

4.81 

6 

4.15 

4.38 

4.62 

4.85 

5.08 

5.31 

5.54 

5.77 

7 

4.85 

5.12 

5.38 

5.65 

5.92 

6.19 

6.46 

6.73 

8 

5.54 

5.85 

6.16 

6.46 

6.76 

7.08 

7.38 

7.69 

9 

6.23 

6.58 

6.92 
^.69 

7.27 

7.62 

7.96 

8.30 

8.65 

10 

6.92 

7.31 

8.08 

8.46 

8.85 

9.24 

9.62 

11 

7.62 

8.04 

8.46 

8.88 

9.30 

9.73 

10.16 

10.58 

12 

8.31 

8.77 

9.23 

9.69 

10.16 

10.62 

11.08 

11.54 

13 

9.00 

9.50 

10.00 

10.50 

11.00 

11.50 

12.00 

12.50 

14 

9.69 

10.23 

10.77 

11.31 

11.84 

12.38 

12.92 

13.46 

15 

10.38 

10.96 

11.54 

12.12 

12.70 

13.27 

13.84 

14.42 

16 

11.08 

11.69 

12.31 

12.92 

13.54 

14.15 

14.74 

15.38 

17 

11.77 

12.42 

13.08 

13.73 

14.38 

15.04 

15.70 

16.35 

18 

12.46 

13.15 

13.85 

14.54 

15.24 

15.92 

16.62 

17.31 

19 

13.15 

13.88 

14.62 

15.35 

16.08 

16.81 

17.54 

18.27 

20 

13.85 

14.62 

15.38 

16.15 

16.92 

17.69 

18.46 

19.23 

21 

14.54 

15.35 

16.16 

16.96 

17.76 

18.58 

19.38 

20.19 

22 

15.23 

16.08 

16.92 

17.77 

18.62 

19.46 

20 .  30 

21.15 

23 

15.92 

16.81 

17.69 

18.58 

19.46 

20.35 

21.24 

2i.ll 

24 

16.62 

17.54 

18.46 

19.38 

20.30 

21.23 

22.16 

23.08 

25 

17.31 

18.27 

19.23 

20.19 

21.16 

22  12 

23.08 

24.04 

26 

18.00 

19.00 

20.00 

21.00 

22.00 

23  00 

24.00 

25.00 

Explanation. — The  c 

olumn 

on  the  left  hand  of  the  tabl( 

a 

shows  the  number  of  days  :  and  the  rate  per  month  is  seen 

at  the  top  of  the  page. 

Example. — To  iind  the  amount  of  19  days'  work,  at  $11 

per  month :  find  19  in  the  column  of  days ;  then  move  to  tlie 

right,  on  the  same  line,  till  you  come  under  $11  (rate  per 

month),  and  you  find  $8.04 — the  answer. 

In  all  cases,  the  amount  will  be  found  directly  under  the 

price  per  month,  and  at  the  right  of  the  given  time. 

In  this  table,  the  wages  are  cast  at  26  working  days  per 

10* 

226  TABLE    OF    WAGES. 

month.  For  a  fraction  of  a  day,  take  an  equal  part  of  the 
amount  for  one  day,  and  for  rates  less  than  $3  per  month, 
half  what  is  shown  for  twice  the  amount. 

Should  it  be  desired  to  ascertain  the  wages  per  day  for  any 
given  sum  per  month  above  $25,  it  can  be  done  by  adding  to 
or  doubling  the  above  amounts.  Thus  for  $30  per  month, 
take  20  and  10  in  the  above  table  and  add  them ;  for  $37 
per  month,  take  20  and  10  and  7,  and  add  them ;  for  $50, 
take  25  and  double  it;  for  $75  per  month,  take  25  and 
triple  it,  &c. 


KEEPING   ACCOLINTS. 


Blank  account  books,  designed  for  keeping  simple  ledger 
accounts,  are  generally  of  two  kinds,  viz. :  Those  in  which  the 
Dr.  and  6V.  sides  of  the  account  are  on  the  same  page,  and 
those  in  which  they  are  on  opposite  pages.  We  give  below 
samples  of  each,  with  the  mode  of  keeping  the  account. 

Page  72  WILLIAM   WILSON.  I>r.  Cr. 


Jan.     12  To  18  bus.  potatoes,  at  60  cts 

*♦      20!    "   1  ton  hay.  at  $8 

"      25i  By  cash  on  account 

Feb.  7  j  To  1  yoke  steers  sold  you  this  day .  . . . 

"  15  By  2000  feet  pine  boards,  at  $10.  m.. . 

"      20  To  30  bus.  oats,  at  30  cts 

Mar.      6i   "40     •*     corn,  at  50  cts , 

April     3J  By  1  pair  boots  for  Sjm 

"      lOj  '•   50  lbs.  sugar,  at  8  cts 

May     12;  "    10   '    coffee  at  15  cts 

June      7j  To  3  cords  wood,  at  $2  50 

•'      20|  By  ca«h  on  account 

July  1  j  By  balance  of  account  charged  below . 

July       1 1  To  balance  of  account 


$9  00 

8  00 

80  GO 

9  00 
20  00 


7  50 


1H3  60 


44  00 


$ 
10  00 
20  00 


4  00 
4  Oi) 
1  50 

60  00 

44  00 


.^3  50 


Page  72. 

WM.  WILSON.        Dr.  1 

1861. 

Jan.    12 

To  18  bus.  po'atoes 

at  50  cts 

$9  00 

''     20 

T.)  1  ton  hay.  at  $8 

8  GO 

Feb.     7 

To  1  yoke  steers,  sold 

you  this  day 

80  00 

"     20 

To  30  bus    oats,  at 

SU  cts 

9  00 

Mar.     5 

To  40  bus.  corn,  at 

50  cts 

20  00 

June    7 

To  3  cords  wood,  at 

$2  50 

7  50 

)3:i  5t 

July    1 

To  balance  of  act.. . 

44  00 

WM  WILSON. 


Page  73. 
Cr. 


186  L 
Jan.    25 
Feb'y  15 

April    3 

"      10 

May    12 

June  20 
July      1 


By  cash  on  account . 
By  2000   feet    pine 

boards,  at  $10  M 
By  1  pair  boots  for 

Sam 

By  50  lbs.  sugar,  at 

8  cts 

By  10  lbs.  coffee,  at 

1 5  cts 

By  c  ish  on  account. 
By  balance  of  acct 

charged 


$10  00 

20  00 

4  00 

4  00 

1  50 
50  00 

44  00 
133  50 


228  KEEPING    ACCOUNTS. 

FoTtn  of  a  Bill  of  the  foregoing. 

WILLIAM  WILSON,  Dr. 

1861.  In  Account  with  THOMAS  BUNN,  Or. 

January  12,     To  18  bus.  potatoes,  at  50  cts $9  00 

^'         20,      "  1  ton  hay,  at  $8 8  00 

February   7,      "  1  yoke  steers 80  00 

''         20,      "  30  bus.  oats,  at  30  cts 9  00 

March        5,      "  40  bus.  corn,  at  50  cts 20  00 

June  7,      "  3  cords  wood,  at  $2  50 7  50 

1861                                    Cr.  $133  50 

January  25,  By  cash  on  account $10  00 

Feb'y  15,  "  2000  ft.  lumber,  at  $10  M  20  00 

April  3,  '^  1  pair  boots  for  Sam ....  4  00 

''  10,  "  50  lbs.  sugar,  at  8  cts. ...  4  00 

May  12,  "  10  lbs.  coffee,  at  15  cts. .  150 

June  20,  "  cash  on  account 50  00       89  50 

July  1,    To  balance $44  00 

Note. — Since  the  whole  science  of  book-keeping  rests 
upon  charges  and  credits^  if  you,  once  for  all,  get  what  is  a 
charge  and  what  is  a  credit  clearly  fixed  in  your  mind,  and 
fully  understand  when  you  ought  to  charge  and  when  you 
ought  to  credit,  you  will  have  little  difiiculty  in  keeping 
your  accounts  straight,  simple,  and  satisfactory. 

When  you  let  your  neighbor,  or  he  with  whom  you  deal, 
have  anything  from  you,  it  is  a  charge  against  him,  and  you 
must  charge  him  with  it  on  the  debit  side  of  the  account ; 
but  whenever  you  receive  anything  from  him,  it  is  a  credit^ 
and  you  must  credit  him  with  it  on  the  credit  side  of  the 


KEEPING    ACCOUNTS.  229 

account.  Thus  you  "  charge "  for  what  you  give,  and 
"credit"  for  what  you  receive.  He  with  whom  you  deal 
does  likewise — charging  you  with  what  he  gives  you,  and 
crediting  you  with  what  he  receives  from  you.  Hence  his 
charges  against  you  will  correspond  with  your  credits  to 
him,  and  his  credits  to  you  will  correspond  with  your  charges 
against  him. 

In  like  manner,  should  it  be  desired  to  keep  an  account 
with  a  certain  field,  or  meadow,  or  cow,  the  name  is  entered 
at  the  top  of  the  page  and  in  the  index,  just  as  an  in- 
dividual's, and  what  you  give  to  it,  the  labor  it  costs  you, 
&c.,  you  charge  to  it,  and  what  it  yields  you  you  credit  to  it. 
In  this  w^ay  a  farmer  can  keep  an  account  with  each  of  his 
fields  or  altogether,  with  each  of  his  cows  or  with  the  herd, 
with  each  of  his  pigs  or  altogether,  with  each  of  his  sheep  or 
with  the  whole  flock,  &c. 

The  word  "  To  "  prefixed  to  an  entry  indicates  a  charge  or 
debit ;  the  word  "  By  "  indicates  a  credit. 

Each  entry  should  be  made  on  the  day  the  transaction 
took  place. 

The  account  should  be  cast  and  balanced  at  least  once 
every  six  months,  and  if  not  settled  the  balance  brought 
down,  as  above,  when  the  account  may  be  continued. 

BOOK-KEEPING   BY   DOUBLE   ENTRY. 

Book-keeping  by  double  entry  is  that  form  of  keeping 
accounts  in  which  two  entries  are  made  in  the  Ledojer  for 


230  KEEPING    ACCOUNTS. 

every  one  in  the  Day-Book ;  one  a  charge,  or  dehit^  and  the 
other  a  credit.  Thus  you  not  only  charge  the  party  who 
receives  from  you,  but  you  credit  that  department  of 
your  business  from  which,  whatever  it  is,  is  received. 
You  keep  an  account  with  as  many  different  departments  of 
your  business  as  jou  deem  necessary.  A  farmer  might 
keep  an  account  with  his  herd,  with  wheat,  rye,  corn,  grass, 
hay,  and  other  crops,  or  different  fields,  separately  or  toge- 
ther, under  the  head  of  "  Farm."  Where  the  time  required 
can  be  spared,  we  think  it  desirable  to  keep  accounts  by 
double  entry  with  every  department  of  a  business,  down  to  a 
very  minute  detail,  because  where  books  are  kept  by  this 
system,  you  can  turn  to  any  account  and  ascertain  at  a 
glance  its  condition ;  that  is,  how  much  money  you  have 
spent  on  it,  and  how  much  it  has  returned  you,  and  what 
balance  is  for  or  against  it.  The  books  necessary  to  be  used 
in  keeping  accounts  by  this  system  are  two,  the  Day- Book 
and  Ledger.  A  tliird,  called  a  Journal,  is  sometimes  used 
intermediary  between  the  Day-Book  and  Ledger ;  but  we 
consider  it  much  more  trouble  than  benefit,  and  therefore 
think  best  entirely  to  dispense  with  it. 

The  Day-Book  is  ruled  with  two  dollar  and  cent  columns 
on  the  right  hand  side,  and  one  column  on  the  lefl  hand 
side,  in  which  the  page  of  the  Ledger  is  entered  when  the 
account  is  transferred  to  the  Ledger. 

The  Ledger  is  generally  ruled,  as  in  the  example  given 
below  ;  the  name  of  the  account  is  written  across  the  top  of 


KEEPING   ACCOUNTS. 


231 


the  page,  and  if  the  transactious  will  probably  be  numerous 
other  pages  following  may  be  reserved  to  continue  the  ac- 
count upon  when  the  first  page  is  full. 

It  is  customary  with  a  person  keeping  books  by  this  me- 
thod to  have  an  account  with  ''  Cash,"  with  his  family,  and 
if  he  takes  and  gives  notes,  with  "  Bills  Receivable,"  and 
'*  Bills  Payable."  We  will  give  below  a  sample  of  transac- 
tions entered  in  the  Day- Book  and  carried  to  the  Ledger.  If 
I  sold,  October  1st,  to  John  Brown,  twenty  bushels  of  apples, 
at  75  cents  per  bushel,  and  was  to  deliver  them  to  him  for 
$1,  and  on  October  5th,  bought  of  him  five  barrels  of  flour, 
for  family  use,  at  $4  per  barrel,  which  he  was  to  deliver 
gratis,  my  entries  in  the  Day-Book  would  be  as  follows,  sup- 
posing I  kept  accounts  with  the  departments  mentioned  : — 

Page  1. 
Centerville,  Oct.  Ist,  1861. 


JOHN  BROWN,  Dr. 

Sold  him  20  bus.  apples,  at  75  cts  per  bus.  $16  00 

Cartage 1  00 

Cr.  

ORCHARD, 

I'EAMING 

Oct.  5. 


FAMILY  EXPENSE.  Dr. 
Bought  of  John  Brown.  5  bbls.  flour,  at  $4  per  bbl. 
Ct. 

JOHN  BROWN 


16 


20 


00 


00 


1500 
100 


20  00 


Dr. 


The  Ledger  accounts  of  the  above  would  be  as  follows  : — 

Pages. 
Cr. 


JOHN  BROWN. 


1861. 
October 


1861 
16  00  Oct.  5 


20  00 


232 


KEEPENG   ACCOUNTS. 


Dr. 


TEAMING. 


Page  7. 
Cr, 


— 

1861 

1                                ! 

Oct.     5 

1 

100 

Page  6. 

Dr.                                                 ORCHARD                                                   Or, 

1861. 
Oct. 

1 

1 

1 
15 

00 

Page  10. 

Dr,                                       FAMILY  EXPENSE.                                        Or. 

1861 

1 

1           1 

Oct. 

5 

1 

2C 

00 

1                            \ 

1 

In  the  Day-Book,  in  the  right  hand  dollar  and  cent  col- 
umn, the  credits  are  entered  ;  in  the  left  hand,  the  debits, 
as  shown. 

In  the  Ledger,  the  half  of  the  page  to  the  left  of  the  centre 
is  devoted  to  debits  ;  to  the  right,  to  credits.  The  column 
to  the  left  of  the  dollar  and  cent  column  in  the  Ledger  is 
where  the  page  of  the  Day-l^ook  from  which  the  entry  is 
taken  is  noted. 

The  form  which  we  have  given  above  is,  perhaps,  the 
simplest  in  which  books  can  be  kept  by  double  entry,  conse- 
quently the  best.  Ko  difficulty  will  be  experienced  in  this 
system  of  keeping  books,  after  one  has  already  fixed  in  his 
mind  what  is  a  charge  or  debit,  and  what  is  a  credit,  as  ex- 
plained above.     Some  remarks  may  not,  however,  be  unne- 


J 


KEEPING    ACCOUNTS.  333 

cessary  in  this  connection,  to  show  what  to  credit  and  wha,t 
to  charge,  under  certain  circumstances.  If  you  give  a  man 
a  note  for  the  balance  of  his  account,  you  debit  his  account 
and  credit  Bills  Payable.  When  you  pay  the  note,  you 
debit  Bills  Payable  and  credit  Cash.  If  you  receive  a  note 
for  balance  of  account,  you  credit  the  man's  account  and 
debit  Bills  Receivable.  When  the  note  is  paid,  you  credit 
Bills  Receivable  and  debit  Cash.  In  tlie  first  entry  in  the 
above  example,  it  may  be  well  to  say,  you  do  not  give  credit 
to  the  man  who  drives  the  wagon,  or  to  the  wagon  for  its  use. 
These  are  legitimate  charges  against  Teaming.  At  the 
proper  time  you  credit  the  man  his  wages,  and  charge  or 
debit  Teaming  for  it  (or  that  portion  of  his  time  in  which 
he  has  been  engaged  teaming),  &c. 

Some  businesses  require  an  Interest  account  to  be  kept ; 
of  course,  from  our  previous  remarks,  any  one  who  finds-  it 
necessary  will  see  the  proper  way  to  keep  it. 

It  is  necessary,  in  connection  with  the  Day-Book  and 
Ledger,  to  keep  a  Cash-Book  and  Bill-Books,  where  a  person 
does  a  credit  business.  The  Cash-Book,  to  keep  a  record  of 
the  receipts  and  disbursements  of  cash,  which  should  be 
balanced  every  night  (if  any  cash  has  been  spent  or  receiv- 
ed during  the  day),  and  the  money  counted  ;  the  balance  on 
hand  and  the  balance  shown  by  the  book  should  correspond  ; 
if  they  do  not,  something  has  been  omitted.  If  you  have 
on  hand  more  than  the  balance  calls  for,  you  have  received 
money  which  has  not  been  entered  on  the  debit  side  of  the 


234  KEEPING    ACCOUNTS. 

account.     If  you  liave  too  little,  jou  have  spent  money  for 
which  the  account  has  not  been  credited. 

The  Bill-Books  are  to  keep  a  record  of  notes  received  and 
notes  paid  out.  The  Bills  Payable  book  records  the  follow- 
ing facts  :  The  date  of  the  note,  the  time  it  is  to  run,  the 
date  of  falling  due,  to  whom  it  was  given,  in  whose  favor  it 
was  made,  and  the  amount  it  was  made  for.  The  Bills 
Receivable  book  records:  Who  made  the  note,  in  whose 
favor  it  was  made,  how  long  it  has  to  run,  when  it  is  due, 
and  the  amount  it  is  for.  When  notes  are  paid  or  received, 
these  facts  should,  of  course,  be  properly  noted  in  the  Day- 
Book. 

When  accounts  are  first  opened  it  is  best  to  take  an  in- 
ventory of  property  of  all  kinds  on  hand,  charging  each 
department  with  which  you  intend  to  keep  an  account  with 
that  portion  which  it  requires,  and  crediting  an  account  for 
the  same  which  shall  represent  all  your  "  Stock  in  Trade." 
This  account  is  usually  called  '^  Stock."  Then,  at  the  time 
you  wish  to  close  up  your  accounts  to  ascertain  your  profits 
and  losses,  you  take  another  inventory,  and  give  your  de- 
partmental accounts  credit  for  what  property  they  have  on 
hand,  charging  the  general  stock  account  for  the  same  ;  the 
balance  of  this  account  {i.  e.,  the  difference  between  the 
footing  of  the  debit  and  credit  columns)  then  shows  how 
much  more  or  less  property  you  have  on  hand  than  when 
you  commenced  business.  If  the  credit  side  exceeds  the 
debit,  of  course  you  have  more  property ;  and  if  the  debit 


KEEPING    ACCOUNTS.  235 

exceeds  the  credit,  of  course  you  have  less  than  when  you 
began.  Then  the  balance  of  each  departmental  account  (all 
proper  charges  having  been  entered,  and  its  share  of  prop- 
erty on  hand  credited)  will  show  how  much  it  has  made  or 
lost.  These  balances  are  then  usually  carried  to  a  general 
account,  called  *'  Profit  and  Loss  ; "  those  having  a  credit 
balance  are  charged  that  amount,  and  Profit  and  Loss  is 
credited  ;  and  those  having  a  debit  balance  are  credited  that 
amount,  and  Profit  and  Loss  is  charged  for  it.  This  being 
done  with  the  Departmental  accounts  and  the  General  Stock 
accounts,  with  the  Cash  accounts,  and  the  Bills  Payable  and 
Bills  Receivable  accounts,  and  Profit  and  Loss  having  been 
also  charged  for  bad  debts — and  the  parties  owing  them 
having  been  credited  therefor — the  balance  of  that  account 
shows  the  Profit  and  Loss  of  the  business.  Some  parties  do 
not  credit  the  accounts  of  persons  who  owe  bad  debts,  and 
charge  Profit  and  Loss  ;  but,  after  making  up  the  Profit  and 
Loss  account,  draw  it  oft'  on  a  sheet  of  paper,  and  account 
for  them  there.  Others  open  an  account  called  "  Suspense," 
to  which  they  credit  the  amount  of  the  several  bad  debts 
(specifying  them  in  the  Day-Book),  and  charge  Profit  and 
Loss.  This  method  prevents  the  accounts  of  bad  debtors 
appearing  closed  on  your  Ledger.  After  you  have  made  up 
your  books  as  directed,  it  is  best  to  make  a  balance  sheet, 
which  will  show  at  a  glance  what  departments  have  made 
money,  what  lost,  who  owes  you,  and  who  you  owe.  After 
this,  the  several  departments  should  be  charged  back  again 


236 


KEEPING    ACCOUNTS. 


with  the  property  with  which  they  are  to  commence  the 
next  year's  business,  and  the  stock  account  credited  therefor, 
and  you  are  ready  to  begin  again. 

Trial  balances  of  the  Ledger  should  be  made,  say  monthly. 
To  make  a  trial  balance,  you  foot  up  all  the  columns  of 
figures  in  your  Ledger,  draw  oft*  the  debits  on  one  side  of  a 
sheet  and  add  them  together,  and  the  credits  on  the  other 
side  of  the  sheet  and  add  them  together.  If  the  footings  of 
the  debit  and  credit  columns  thus  obtained  are  the  same, 
or,  in  other  words,  balance,  your  Ledger  balances  and  is  all 
right ;  but  if  they  do  not  balance  but  differ,  your  Ledger  is 
in  error,  and  you  must  go  over  it  and  find  where  the 
mistake  is.  , 

Of  course  there  must  be  no  entry  made  in  your  Ledger, 
unless  it  is  also  made  in  your  Day-Book.  The  wording  of 
the  Day-Book  must  be  as  simple  as  possible  and  express  all 
the  facts. 

Some  book-keepers,  when  they  enter  from  the  Day-Book 
into  the  Ledger,  write  in  the  Ledger  between  the  date  col- 
umn and  the  column  of  the  Day-Book  page  the  name  of 
the  account  in  the  Ledger  which  receives  the  corresponding 
entry  or  entries  ;  thus,  in  the  entry  above  given  they  would 
write  thus : — 


Dr. 


JOHN  BROWN. 


Or. 


1861. 
Oct. 


1  To  Orchard, 
!   "  Teaming, 


I     111861. 
15  00'    Oct. 
lloOii 


By  Familj  Expenses 


20 


00 


KEEPING    ACCOUNTS.  237 

This  we  think  of  no  advantage,  and  it  increases  the 
labor  and  trouble.  When  you  render  a  bill  from  the  account, 
you  must  necessarily  turn  to  the  Day-Book  to  ascertain  the 
particulars,  and  the  mere  page  of  the  Day-Book  is  sufficient 
for  this  purpose.  The  less  accounts  are  complicated  the 
easier  they  are  kept,  and  the  less  liable  are  mistakes  to  be 
made. 

No  erasures,  scratching  out,  or  interlineations  should  be 
suffered.  If  a  wrong  entry  be  made,  or  an  entry  made 
wrongly,  let  it  be  explained  by  a  counter  entry  on  the  other 
side  of  the  account,  or  overscored  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  mistake  can  be  seen.  All  erasures,  blotting  out,  scratch- 
ing, &c.,  tend  to  throw  suspicion  upon  the  honesty  of  the 
account. 

Books  of  ''  Original  Entries "  are  only  an  aid  of  the 
memory,  and  he  who  keeps  them  should  be  able  to  swear 
that  the  entries  were  made  on  the  day  they  purport  to  have 
been.  He  may  not  be  able  to  recollect  the  various  entries, 
but  if  it  was  his  invariable  custom  to  make  them  on  the  day 
of  the  transaction,  they  stand  in  place  of  his  memory — they 
are  not,  however,  evidence  of  the  delivery  of  the  goods. 

Form  of  a  Receipt  in  full. 

New  York,  July  1st,  1861. 

Eeceived  of  Thomas  Brown  the  sum  of  forty-four  dollars, 
in  full  of  all  accounts  up  to  this  date. 
$44  00.  William  Wilson. 


238  KEEPING    ACCOUNTS. 

FoTtn  of  a  Check. 
$150  00.  New  York,  July  1st,  1861. 

Please  pay  William  Wilson,  or  order,  one  hundred  and 
fifty  dollars,  and  charge  to  the  account  of 

Thomas  Anderson. 

To  the  Southold  Savings  Bank. 

Form  of  a  Due-Bill. 

New  York,  July  1st,  1861. 

Due  William  Wilson,   or.  order,  on  settlement  this  day, 
one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars. 
$150  00.  Thomas  Anderson. 

Form  of  a  Promissory  Note. 

New  York,  July  1st,  1861. 

Four  months  afterdate  I  promise  to  pay  William  Wilson, 
or  order,  one  hundred. and  fifty  dollars ;  value  received. 
$150  00.  Thomas  Anderson. 

Another  form. 

New  York,  July  1st,  1861. 

On  the  1st  day  of  April  next,  I  promise  to  pay  William  Wil- 
son, or  order,  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars ;  value  received. 
$150  00.  Thomas  Anderson. 

Form  of  a  Promissory  Note  with  Surety, 

New  York,  July  1st,  1861. 

Sixty  days  after  date,  we,  or  either  of  us,  promise  to  pay 
William  Wilson,  or  order,  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  ? 
value  received.  Thomas  Anderson,  (Principal.) 

$150  00.  John  Jones,  (Surety.) 


KEKPINU    ACCOUNTS.  239 

Form  of  o>  Draft  or  Bill  of  Exchange. 
$150  00.  Buffalo,  July  1st,  1861. 

Ten  days  after  sight,  pay  William  Wilson,  or  order,  one 
hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  value  received,  and  charge  the 
same  to  account  of 

Yours,  &c.,  Thomas  Anderson. 

To  William  Allen,  New  York. 

Notes. — A  due-bill  bears  interest  from  its  date  ;  a  prom- 
issory note  not  until  after  it  is  due,  unless  so  expressed  on 
its  face. 

Negotiabilh'y. — The  words,  "  or  order,'^  '*  or  bearer,"  are 
necessary  to  make  a  check,  a  due-bill,  a  promissory  note,  a 
bill  of  exchange,  &c.,  negotiable ;  that  is,  to  enable  the 
holder  of  it  to  trade  and  pass  it  to  another. 

When  the  words  "  or  bearer"  are  introduced,  the  instru- 
ment  may  then  pass  from  hand  to  hand,  like  a  bank-bill, 
without  endorsement ;  but  when  the  words  "  or  order  "  are 
used,  the  instrument  must  be  endorsed  by  the  original  holder 
of  it. 

Endorsement. — Endorsing  a  note  is  writing  your  name 
across  the  back  of  it.  Endorsements  are  of  two  kinds,  an 
endorsement  in  blank  or  general  endorsement,  and  a  special 
endorsement. 

An  endorsement  in  blank  is  the  original  holder's  sinaply 
writing  his  name  across  the  back  of  it.  The  succeeding 
holders  of  it  may  or  may  not,  also,  endorse  it.     If  each  or 


240 


KEEPING    ACCOUNTS. 


any  of  them  do,  they  also  become  severally  bound  for  its 
payment. 

A  special  endorsement  is  made  by  writing  across  the  back  of 
it,  before  endorsing  it,  tlie  words,  "  Pay  to  the  order  of  [name 
of  party  to  whom  it  is  passed],"  which  limits  the  payment 
of  it  to  that  party,  or  his  orders,  and  so  forth. 

AocEFiANCE.; — When  a  draft  or  bill  of  exchange  is  made 
upon  a  third  party  (as  in  the  above  form),  the  latter  is  not 
in  any  way  bound  by  it  until  he  accepts  it,  which  he  does 
when  it  is  presented  to  him  for  acceptance,  by  writing  across 
the  face  of  it  the  word  "  accepted^''  with  the  date,  and  sign- 
ing his  name  thereunder.  He  is  then  a  party  to  the  bill,  and 
bound  for  its  payment  at  maturity. 

Protest. — Protest  is  the  notice  required  by  law  to  be 
given  to  the  endorsers  of  promissory  notes,  and  the  makers 
and  endorsers  of  bills  of  exchange,  of  their  dishonor,  that 
is,  of  their  non-acceptance  or  non-payment. 

If  the  drawee,  or  person  to  whom  a  bill  of  exchange  is 
directed,  refuses  to  accept  it  on  presentation,  notice  must  be 
immediately  given  to  the  maker  of  it. 

If  he  accepts  it,  and  afterwards  fails  to  pay  it  at  maturity, 
notice  must  immediately  be  given  to  the  maker. 

If  the  maker  of  a  promissory  note  fails  to  pay  it  at  ma- 
turity, notice  must  immediately  be  given  to  all  the  en- 
dorsers. 

A  check  is  a  draft  at  sight,  and  if  not  paid,  must  be 
protested. 


KEEPENQ   ACCOUNTS.  241 

It  is  a  general  rule  that  all  guaroMtors  of  commercial  pa- 
per must  be  immediately  notified  of  its  dishonor. 

It  is,  of  course,  not  necessary  to  protest  a  due-bill,  or  a 
promissory  note,  which  is  still  held  by  the  person  to  whom 
it  was  originally  given. 

When  a  note  is  made  payable  "  on  demand^''  it  is  neces- 
sary to  make  a  demand  before  it  will  bear  interest  or  can  be 
sued  for. 


U.  S.  BONDS. 

Interest  is  calculated  on  U.  S.  bonds  and  on  the  public 
debt  at  365  days  to  the  year,  and  is  due  semi-annually.  In 
England  interest  is  calculated  in  the  same  way,  and  the 
legal  rate  is  5  per  cent. 

By  Five-Twenties  is  meant  the  6  per  cent,  gold-bearing 
bonds  of  the  United  States,  which  are  to  mature  in  20  years, 
but  which  the  Government,  by  giving  due  notice,  can  pay 
in  gold  any  time  after  ^ve  years  from  the  date  of  issue. 

The  old  five- twenties  were  the  first  issued.  They  bear 
date  May  1,  1862,  and  are  redeemable  after  May  1,  1867, 
and  payable  May  1,  1882.  The  new  "five-twenties"  were 
issued  Nov.  1,  1864,  July  1,  1865,  and  Nov.  1,  1865. 

By  Ten-Forties  is  meant  the  5  per  cent,  gold-bearing  bonds 
which  are  to  mature  in  40  years,  but  which  may  be  paid  by 
the  Government  at  any  time  after  10  years. 

By  Seven-Thirties  is  meant  a  currency  loan,  which  ma- 
tures in  3  years,  at  which  time  they  may  be  changed  for  the 
five-twenty  7  per  cent,  bonds,  bearing  interest  in  gold.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  rate  of  interest,  it  being  7.3  per 
cent.  The  "First  series"  bear  date  Aug.  15,1864.  The 
"  Second  series  "  bear  date  June  15, 1865,  and  are  converti- 
ble June  15,  1868.  The  "  Third  series  "  bear  date  July  5, 
1865.     On  this  issue  the  Government  reserves  the  right  to 


RELATIVE   VALUE   OF   GOLD   AND   CUREENCY. 


243 


pay  the  interest  at  6  per  cent,  in  gold,  instead  of  7.30  per 
cent,  in  currency. 

By  Six  per  cents,  of  '81  is  meant  the  6  per  cent,  gold- 
bearing  bonds  which  cannot  be  redeemed  by  Government, 
except  by  purchase,  until  after  maturity. 


EELATIYE  YALUE   OF   GOLD  AKD  CURKENCY. 

To  ascertain  the  value  in  gold  of  a  "  greenback  "  dollar 
or  Kational  currency,  at  the  different  quotations  of  gold  : 

Rule. — Divide  $1  by  the  quoted  value  of  $1  in  gold ; 
the  result  will  be  the  value  of  a  dollar  in  currency. 

Example. — When  gold  is  33  per  cent,  premium  what 
is  the  value  of  $1  in  currency  %     $1.00-r-$1.33=.7522. 

Note. — In  the  following  table  the  decimals  are  carried 

to  mills  and  tenths  of  a  mill. 

Table,  showing  the  greenhaxik  value  of  $1  at  the  different 

quotations  of  gold.     When  gold  is  at 

.01  pr.  ct.  prem.  a  greenback 
dollar  is  worth .    .99 

.02 9803 

.03 9708 

.04 9615 

.05 9523 

.06 9433 

.07 9355 

.08 9259 

.09 9174 

.10 909 

.11 9009 


.12  pr.  ct.  prem.  a  greenback 
dollar  is  worth..    .8929 

.13 885 

.14 8771 

.15 8695 

.16 862 

.17 8564 

.18 8474 

.19 8403 

.20 8333 

.21 8264 

.22 8279 


244                             ENGLISH   BONDS   AND   CONSOLS. 

.23  pr.  ct.  prem.  a  greenback 

.37  pr.  ct.  prem.  a  greenback 

dollar  is  worth .    .813 

dollar  is  worth. .    .7308 

.24 8064 

.38 7246 

.25 80 

.39 7194 

.26 7928 

.40 7142 

.27 7874 

.41 7092 

.28 7812 

.42 7042 

.29 7751 

.43 6993 

.30 7692 

.44 6944 

.31 7633 

.45 6896 

.32 7575 

.46 6849 

.33 7522 

.47 2162     ' 

.34...  „ 7462 

.48 6758     1 

.35 7409 

.49   6716     i 

.36 7353 

.50 6666 

Note. — The  highest  quotation  of  gold  at  the  'New  York 

Stock  Exchange  during  the  war  was  285,  July  11th,  1864. 

A  dollar  currency  was  then  worth  35  cents.     Gold  in  Eich- 

mond,  Ya.,  reached  4400,  Feb.  4th,  1865.     A  dollar  in  Con- 

federate currency  was  worth  .02:J-,  cents. 

EKGLISH  BONDS  AND   CONSOLS. 

Exchequer  Bills  are  English  bonds,  similar  to  those  of  the 

U.  S.     The  rates  of  interest  vary  from  5  to  3  per  cent.,  and 

whiy  the  Government  pays  the  interest,  it  cannot  be  re- 

quired to  refund  the  principal.                                                  ^ 

Consols  are  several  English  securities  consolidated  by  act 

of  Parliament.     The  rate  of  interest  is  3  per  cent. 

buying  and  selling  stocks. 

STOCK    QUOTATIONS.  245 

A  Broker  is  a  person  who  executes  orders  for  those  who 
are  not  members  of  the  exchange. 

A  Jobber  deals  in  stock  on  his  own  account.  A  "  stag," 
or  "  outsider,"  is  a  broker  who  is  not  a  member  of  the  ex- 
change. 

A  Bull  is  one  who  buys  stock  to  be  delivered  to  him  at  a 
future  time,  with  the  intention  of  selling  it,  in  the  mean- 
time, at  a  higher  price  before  he  is  obliged  to  receive  it. 

A  Bear  is  one  who  sells  stock  that  he  does  not  own,  to  be 
delivered  at  a  future  date,  hoping  in  the  meantime  to  buy 
it  at  a  less  price.  A  "  lame  duck  "  is  one  who  is  unable  to 
fulhl  his  contracts,  and  hence  is  expelled  from  the  exchange. 

"  Selling  Short "  is  applied  to  sales  of  stock  which  the 
seller  does  not  own,  deliverable  at  a  future  time,  generally 
not  exceeding  60  days.  The  hears  usually  "sell  short." 
The  buyer  pays  interest  for  over  3  days. 

''Seller's  Option"  gives  the  seller  the  privilege  of  deliv- 
ering the  stock  at  any  time  before  the  time  specified  for  de- 
livery. 

"  Buyer's  Option  "  gives  the  purchaser  the  privilege  of 
claiming  the  delivery  of  the  stock  at  any  time  before  the 
time  specified  for  delivery. 

STOCK  QUOTATIONS. 

Frmn  N.   Y.  Herald. 
Sales. 

12000  Am.   G \AZ]4    $12000  ecold  at  43>^  per  cent,  premium. 

12000  U  S  6's  '81  cou  112  y  -I  ^^^000  U.  S.  6  per  cent,  coupon  bonds,  matur- 

(      ing  1881,  at  12^  per  cent,  premium. 
10000  U.  S.  5-20  Reg.  '62 104>^    U.  S.  5-20  Registered  Bonds  isued  in  1862. 


246  SUCCESS  m  business. 

40000  Tr'y.  N.  7-30  2d  s 107     ]  ^""onrsYries  ^^'  ^*  '^'^  ^^"^  ''^''^*  ^^""^'^  '^''' 

( 100  Shares  of  New  York  Central  RE,.  7  per 

100  K  Y.  Gen.  Ts,  '65-'76 120     <     cent,  bonds  issued  in  1865,  and  maturing  in 

I     1876. 

500  Hud.  R.  Ts  1st  M 101        Hudson  K  7  per  cent,  first  mortgage  bonds. 

OHA      ^^        4t      o^  -M-  a  w  in<      (Hudson  R.  7  per  cent,  second  mortgage  sink- 

^"^  ^dM.S.J?..    1U4     -j      ingfund. 

■snr  v   -D-a  o  /I'c  m  3x  J  Erie  RR.  sold  at  2  days'  credit  at  51 X  cents 

100  E.  RR.^ds... 51^ -j     per  dollar. 

100        "        b  5  w  n  51-1  ^"®  "^^*  ^°  ^^  delivered  before  5  days  with- 
)     out  notice. 

1000  C.  and  Am.  6's,  *89 108><r  ]  ^^j'^g"  ^""^  "^""^"^  ^  ^^"^  ''^''^'  '"^timng  in 

100  Mich.  0.  6's,  b.  15  and  int. . . . .  107^  \  *^it*da^yf ^th  b^tfres?  ^"^  ^  *i«li^«red  before 

inn  TT  Q  a-..    7  QAi-Tif  -c  ir  A  mi^JU.   S.    Treasury  notes  7.3  per  cent,   interest 

100  IT.  S.  Tr.  7-30  mt.  F.  &  A IIIX  \     p^id  in  February  and  August. 

1000  Erie  pref.  s.,  w.  n 88        Erie  Preferred  Stock  without  notice. 

100  Penn.  6's,  int.  off. 104     \  Pennsylvania  6  per  cent,  stock,  the  last  inter- 

xw  i  oixu.  V  D,  ixiu.  uii.  aw^     1      est  of  which  has  been  paid. 

500  E  RR.  bo                    .  23  i  E"®  ^^'  stock,  "Buyer's  Option,"  when  to 

(     for  the  stock. 

onn        n      »   rt  SI  j  Erie  RR.  stock,  "Seller's  Option,"  when  to  de- 

"^               ®-  ° "^^  1     Uver  the  stock. 


SUCCESS  IN  BUSINESS. 

Short  Credits. 

Short  credit  has  much  to  do  with  the  amount  of  profits 
in  business.  The  difference  between  long  and  short  credits 
will  be  seen  by  the  following  table,  showing  the  amount  of 
$100  in  ten  years. 

Am't  at        Am't  at        Am't  at        Am't  at 


3  pr.  ct. 

5  pr.ct. 

8  pr.  ct. 

10  pr.  ct. 

med  over  every  3  months, 

$326.20 

$703.99 

$2172.45 

$4525.92 

((                ((               U          g                (( 

180.61 

265.33 

466.09 

672.75 

U                ({                ({           g                (( 

155.79 

207.89 

317.21 

417.72 

((          ((         ((     22          " 

134.39 

162.88 

215.89 

259.37 

"        «        "      2  years, 

115.92 

127.62 

146.93 

161.05 

U             ((              ((         g         u 

106.09 

110.25 

116.64 

121.00 

Small  Proffis. 
By  the  above  table  it  will  be  seen  that  quick  sales  and 


SUCCESS    IN   BUSINESS.  247 

small  profits  are  more  desirable  than  large  profits  and  long 
credits.  It  must  be  considered,  however,  before  reducing 
profits,  whether  the  sales  can  be  increased  so  as  to  compen- 
sate for  the  reduction  of  profits. 

Economy  in  Expense. 
Many  a  young  man  in  business  fails  to  succeed,  owing 
to  a  want  of  economy  in  expense.     All  expense  must  he  de- 
ducted from  the  profits.     "Fortunes  are  speut  by  trifles." 
"  A  penny  saved  is  worth  two  earned." 

2  cents  per  day  in  ten  years  will  amount  to  $100.85  at  7  p.  c.  compound  int. 

5  "  "  "  252.14 

25  "  "  '•  1260.71  "  " 

50  "  "  "  2521.42  "  " 

100  «  "  "  5042.84  "  " 

$2  «  "  "  10085.68  "  " 

Marking  Goods. 

It  is  customary  among  merchants  to  use  a  private  mark 

to  denote  the  cost  and  selling  price  of  goods.     Any  word  or 

phrase  containing  ten  difibrent  letters  is  selected,  and  used 

to  represent  figures,  as  "  White  sugar,"  "  Misfortune,"  &c., 

thus: 

white        sugar 

12345        67890 

An  extra  letter  called  a  "  repeater  "  is  generally  used  to 
prevent  the  repetition  of  a  figure,  as  a?,  y,  or  0,  &c. ;  thus 
388  would  be  represented  by  igz^  using  s  as  a  repeater,  in- 
stead of  igg.     The  object  is  to  prevent  a  clue  being  given  to 


248  SUCCESS  m  business. 

the  key-word.  Any  mark  or  character  may  be  used  to  rep- 
resent a  figm'e  instead  of  a  letter.  Fractions  may  be  writ- 
ten   thus,   4:7S^=^tui . ;  or  by  an  arbitrary  mark,  thus,  o 

may  represent  f,  then  4:7 3^-=^ tui  o.  Sometimes  the  cost 
mark  is  written  below  a  line,  and  the  selling  price  above ; 
thus, 

4.62    tsh  sell.  pr. 

3.24    iht  cost. 


-: 

:.                --- 

^:                    .: 

\                                     1 

w 

\ 

^                                                                                                                             H 

_  ^      %  . 

i  f.               ^ 

THE  OTIS  PATENT  LIGHTNING  ROD, 

.A.I=I»31-IBID     TO     TKCEJ     I^.     ^ST.     ST,A^T3B     >^X%8ErT.A.X^. 

M.  WELLS,  Electrician,  112  Broadway,  N.  Y. 


LIGHTKmG-EODS. 

The  humid  gases,  generated  by  the  heating  and  sweating 
of  the  hay,  which  immediately  follows  its  accumulation 
in  closely-packed  masses,  offers  a  strong  attraction  to  elec- 
tricity, just  at  the  time  when  it  is  most  abundant.  It  is  an 
object  of  peculiar  importance  to  the  farmer  to  guard  his 
buildings,  at  such  times,  with  properly  constructed  light- 
ning-rods ;  and  they  are  a  cheap  mode  of  insurance  against 
fire  from  this  cause,  as  the  expense  is  trifling  and  the  security 
great. 

As  an  example  of  the  more  elaborate  style  of  rods,  we 
show  in  the  accompanying  cut  the  manner  in  which  Otis' 
Patent  Lightning-Kods  have  been  applied  to  the  New  York 
Btate  Arsenal. 

To  construct  a  lightning-rod. 

Take  round  or  square  soft  iron  f  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
in  pieces  of  convenient  length  ;  connect  the  pieces  by  split- 
ting one  end  and  flattening  and  inserting  the  other,  and 
fasten  with  a  rivet  or  screw,  so  tliat  the  rod  preserves  its 
uniform  thickness  throughout.  Or,  the  pieces  may  be  con- 
nected in  a  more  perfect  manner,  although  not  often  so  con- 
venient, by  having  a  male  screw  cutron  one  end  of  the  pieces 
and  a  female  screw  on  the  other,  and  simply  screwing  them 
together  as  the  rod  is  raised;  care  being  taken  that  the 


252  LIGHTNING-RODS. 

pieces  are  brought  in  contact  at  the  outer  edge,  so  as  to 
form  a  united  surface.  If  a  square  rod  is  used,  notch  the 
corners  with  a  single  downward  stroke  of  a  cold  chisel,  at  in- 
tervals of  two  or  three  inches.  No  part  of  the  rod  should 
be  painted,  as  its  efficiency  would  be  greatly  impaired.  Let 
the  upper  extremity  consist  of  one  iinely  drawn  point  of 
copper  or  silver,  or  well  gilded  iron,  to  prevent  rusting. 
Let  the  lower  part  of  the  rod,  at  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
terminate  in  two  or  three  flattened  divergent  branches,  lead- 
ing several  feet  outwardly  from  the  building,  and  buried  at 
a  depth  which  reaches  perpetual  moisture,  in  a  bed  of  char- 
coal. Attach  the  rod  to  the  building  by  clasps  protruding 
three  or  four  inches  and  containing  glass  rings  or  funnels 
for  the  rod  to  pass  through.  The  rod  must  not  touch  the 
building  nor  the  iron  clasps,  but  only  the  glass ;  because,  the 
latter  being  a  non-conductor  of  electricity,  in  the  event  of 
the  rods  being  struck  by  lightning,  the  charge  is  conducted 
harmlessly  to  the  ground,  having  no  point  of  contact  with  a 
conductor  by  which  it  might  be  led  into  the  building.  Upon 
reaching  the  top  of  the  building  the  rod  should  be  conducted 
to  the  centre  of  the  ridge,  and  the  end  should  then  be  raised 
to  a  height  equal  to  one-half  of  the  distance  to  the  end  of 
the  ridge.  If  the  roof  is  irregular  in  height,  of  course  judg- 
ment must  be  used  in  fixing  the  point  where  the  end  of  the 
rod  rises  above  the  roof,  bearing  in  mind  this  important 
consideration — that  the  rod  protects  objects  at  twice  the 
distance  of  its  height  above  any  point  in  a  line  perpendicu- 
lar to  its  upper  termination. 


LIGHTNING-RODS.  253 

The  conducting  power  of  bodies  is  in  the  ratio  of  their 
surfaces.  Hence  a  bundle  of  wires,  ribbons,  or  tubes  of 
metal,  are  more  efficient  than  an  equal  quantity  of  solid, 
round,  or  square  rods. 

The  conductors  of  electricity  in  the  order  of  their  power 
are,  copper,  silver,  gold,  iron,  tin,  lead,  zinc,  platinum,  char- 
coal, black  lead,  strong  acids,  soot  and  lampblack,  metallic 
ores,  metallic  oxides,  dilute  acids,  saline  solutions,  animal 
fluids,  sea-water,  fresh  water,  ice,  living  vegetables,  living 
animals,  flame,  smoke,  vapor  and  humid  gases,  salts,  rarified 
air,  dry  earth  and  massive  minerals. 

The  non-conductors  in  their  order  are,  shellac,  amber, 
resins,  sulphur,  wax,  asphaltum,  glass,  all  vitrified  bodies, 
raw  silk,  bleached  silk,  dyed  silk,  wool,  hair,  feathers,  dry 
paper,  parchment  and  leather,  baked  wood  and  dry  vegeta- 
bles. 

The  question  of  the  utility  of  lightning-rods  is  not  clearly 
decided ;  and  certainly  very  grave  doubts  exist  as  to  the  use- 
fulness of  the  various  complicated  patent  devices  which  are 
hawked  about  the  country,  under  the  sanction  of  splendid 
testimonials. 

Dr.  Franklin's  theory  was, — and  he  claimed  to  have  proved 
it  by  having  drawn  the  electricity  harmlessly  from  a  cloud 
over  his  kite-string, — that  the  value  of  the  lightning-rod 
consists,  not  in  its  ability  to  receive  shocks,  but  in  the  fact 
that  it  taps  the  surcharged  clouds  and  conveys  the  electricity 
quietly  to  the  earth. 


254  LIGHTNING-RODS. 

Based  upon  this  theory,  there  has  recently  been  advanced 
an  idea  that  seems  sensible.  It  is  to  substitute  a  piece  of 
galvanized  telegraph  wire  for  the  kite-string,  a  pointed  rod 
of  iron  at  the  top  of  the  building  for  the  kite,  and  another 
rod  driven  into  the  ground  for  the  key  in  Dr.  Franklin's 
hand. 

The  iron  at  the  top  should  project  five  or  six  feet  above 
the  roof,  and  if  tlie  ridge-pole  is  more  than  twenty  feet 
long,  there  should  be  two  or  more  of  these,  all  to  be  con- 
nected with  each  other  and  with  the  rod  in  the  ground  by 
simple  wire. 

This  plan  has  the  great  merit  of  being  cheap  and  within 
the  reach  of  all — and,  so  far  as  anything  is  actually  known 
of  the  subject,  is  as  good  as  the  more  elaborate  and  expen- 
sive ones. 


PEESSURE  OF  EARTH  AGAINST  WALLS. 

To  find  the  pressure  of  the  difierent  kinds  of  earths,  filling, 
&G.,  against  walls,  it  is  necessary  first  to  ascertain  the  line  or 
angle  of  rupture,  or  natural  slope,  the  earth  would  assume 
but  for  the  resistance  of  the  wall.  This  natural  slope  differs 
with  the  different  kinds  of  earths.  Assuming  that  the  earth 
is  level  with  the  top  of  the  wall,  the  line  of  rupture  for  the 
different  kinds  of  earths,  filling,  &c.,  will  be  as  follows  : — 

A  bank  of  vegetable  earth  will  rupture  on  the  surface  at  a 
distance  from  the  top  of  the  wall  of  three-fifths  the  height 
of  the  wall. 

A  bank  of  sand  will  rupture  at  two-thirds  the  height  of 
the  wall. 

A  bank  of  unhewn  stone,  at  one-seventh  the  height  of  the 
wall. 

A  bank  of  ruhhle  at  two-fifths  the  height  of  the  wall. 

A  bank  of  hrick,  with  a  bank  of  vegetable  earth  behind 
it,  will  rupture  at  a  distance  of  about  one-sixth  the  height 
of  the  wall. 

A  bank  of  clay,  well  rammed,  will  rupture  at  a  distance 
of  three-sixteenths  the  height  of  the  wall. 

The  strongest  horizontal  stress  against  the  wall  is  at  half 
the  angle  which  the  natural  slope  makes  with  it ;  hence : 


256  PKESSUKE   OF   EARTH    AGAINST   WALLS. 

The  greatest  pressure  for  a  bank  of  vegetable  earth  will  be 
at  three- tenths  the  height  of  the  wall  from  the  bottom. 

For  a  bank  of  sand,  at  one-third  the  height  of  the  wall. 

For  a  bank  of  rubble,  at  one-fifth  the  height  of  the  wall. 

For  a  bank  of  unhewn  stone,  at  one-fourteenth  the  height 
of  the  wall. 

For  a  bank  of  brich,  at  one-twelfth  the  height  of  the  wall. 

For  a  bank  of  clay,  at  three-thirty-seconds  the  height  of 
the  wall. 

"Walls  should  therefore  be  built  proportionably  strong  to 
these  heights  to  sustain  the  different  pressures.  If  the  bank 
is  liable  to  be  saturated  with  water  the  wall  should  be 
doubled  in  strength. 


FRACTIONS— DECIMALS. 

A  fraction  is  one  or  more  parts  of  a  unit,  and  is  ex- 
pressed b,y  fractional  characters,  thus,  J,  J,  f ;  or  by  deci- 
mals, thus,  .5,  .25,  .75. 

When  expressed  by  fractional  characters,  the  upper  jSgure 
is  called  the  numerator^  because  it  numbers  or  gives  value 
to  the  fraction,  by  showing  how  many  parts  of  the  whole 
number  into  which  the  unit  is  divided  is  taken ;  and  the 
lower  figure  is  called  the  denominator,  because  it  names  the 
number  of  parts  into  which  the  unit  is  divided.  Thus,  f 
means  that  the  unit  is  divided  into  8  parts,  and  that  3 
out  of  the  8  are  taken,  &c. 

"When  expressed  by  a  decimal,  the  decimal  number  shows 
that  so  many  parts  of  the  unit  are  taken,  the  unit  itself 
being  impliedly  divided  into  as  many  parts  as  will  corres- 
pond with  the  decimal  number,  and  still  retain  its  ratio  to 
it.     Thus,  .5  means  -f^,  .25  means  y^^,  .125  means  \%\,  &c. 

To  reduce  fractions  to  decimals. 

Divide  the  numerator  by  the  denominator,  adding  cyphers 
as  required. 

Example. — What  are  the  decimals  of  J,  |,  and  -g-  ? 
Solution.— 10-^2=.5,  300-r-4=.75, 7000~8=.875.  Ans. 
To  add  decimals. 
Add  as  in  common  addition,  setting  the  whole  numbers 


258  FRACTIONS —DECIMALS. 

or  integers  directly  under  each  other  from  the  decimal 
point  to  the  left,  and  the  decimals  from  the  decimal  point 
to  the  right,  as  in  the  following  example : — 

12.75 

24.027 

14.5 

16.1278 


67.4048 

To  subtract  dedmals. 

Set  the  whole  numbers  and  decimals  under  each  other,  as 
directed  above,  and  proceed  as  in  common  subtraction,  as 
in  the  following  example  : — 

75.15 

28.875 


46.275 


To  multiply  decimals. 

Set  the  figures  and  multiply  as  in  common  multiplication, 
and  point  off  in  the  product  as  many  decimals  as  there  are 
decimal  places  in  the  multiplier  and  multiplicand,  as  in 
the  following  example : — 

23.25 
22.15 


11625 
2325 
4650 
4650 

514.9875 


FRACTIONS DECTMALg 

J. 

259 

To  divide  decimals. 

Proceed  as  in  common 

division,  and  point  off  to  the  right 

in  the  quotient  as  many  ( 

decimals  as  the  decimal  places  in 

the  dividend  exceed  the  decimal  places 

in  the  divisor,  as  in      | 

the  following  example  :— 

. 

2.48] 

129.952  [52.4 

124  0 

5  95 

4  96 

Useful  decimals. 

i^               .0625 

1 

.3334- 

^ 

.11114- 

i   i-h)      .125 

1 

.6664- 

4 

.2222-f 

iV              .1875 

^ 

.2 

4(1) 

.3338-1- 

i    (i^)      .25 
T^              .3125 

§^ 

.4 

.44444- 

f 

.6 

.5555-h 

f   (A)      .376 
tV              .4376 

i 
1 

.8 

.14284- 

|(f) 

.6666-f- 
.77774- 

A              .6625 

f 

.28564- 

f 

.8888-i- 

^ 

.42854- 

tV 

.1 

f   (1^)      .625 

.67124- 

fb-  (*) 

.2 

ft              .6875 

4 

.71414- 

^ 

.3 

tV'*^      -.8?- 

^ 

.86694- 

iVCl) 

.4 

in 

.7 

1    (H)      -875 

A 

.9 

ft              .9376 

FACTS   ABOUT   FEINTING  AND    BOOK- 
MAKING. 

The  following  are  the  different  styles  of  type  ordvaarily 
used  in  hooh-printing : — 

PICA. 

Springs  are  weakened  by  use,  but  recover  their 
strengtli  if  laid  by. 

SMALL    PICA. 

Metals  have  five  degrees  of  lustre — splendent,   shining, 
glistening,  glimmering,  and  dull. 

LONG    PRIMER. 

The  hardness  of  metals  is  as  follows :  Iron,  Platinum,  Copper, 
Silver,  Gold,  Tin,  Lead. 

BOURGEOIS. 
A  fall  of  1-10  of  an  inch  a  mile  will  produce  a  current  in  rivers. 

BREVIER. 
Melted  snow  produces  about  1-8  of  its  bulk  of  water. 

MINION. 
Silica  is  the  basis  of  the  mineral  world,  and  carbon  of  the  organized. 

NONPAREIL. 

Sound  passes  in  water  at  a  velocity  of  4708  feet  per  second,  and  in  air  1100  feet,  at  a  tem- 
perature of  33°. 

AGATE. 
At  the  depth  of  45  feet,  the  temperature  of  the  earth  is  uniform  throughout  the  year. 

PEARL. 

The  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  air  is  527.04  grains,  or  1  205  ounces,  avoirdupois. 

Note. — Diamond  is  smaller  than  pearl — Emerald  still  smaller. 


FACTS    ABOUT    PRINTING    AND    BOOK-MAKING.  261 

We  do  not  apologize  for  giving  the  above  and  the  few 
following  facts  about  printing,  because  that  art  has  become  so 
universally  used  bv  all  classes  that  it  is  of  practical  impor- 
tance to  disseminate  information  in  regard  to  it. 

The  specimens  given  above  are  called  Roman  ;  CAPI- 
TALS and  SMALL  CAPITALS  bcloug  legitimately  with  this 
style.  Italics  are  cast  to  accompany  it,  to  give  emphasis  to 
certain  parts  of  the  matter  being  composed,  or  set  up.  Italic 
figures  and  small  capitals  of  italic  are  not  made.  Many 
other  styles  of  type,  such  as  Black  Letter,  Script,  Church 
Text,  Clarendon,  Title,  Ionic,  Full  Face,  &c.,  are  cast,  and 
are  ordinarily  used  to  display  certain  lines  in  Job  Printing, 
and  are  consequently  called  job  type. 

Printers  generally  charge  for  the  setting  of  type,  or,  as 
they  technically  term  it,  the  composition  of  matter,  by  the 
number  of  ems  it  contains.  An  em  is  the  square  of  the 
body  of  the  type ;  they  measure  the  matter  composed  by 
multiplying  the  number  of  ems  or  lines  it  is  in  length  by  the 
number  of  ems  or  lines  it  is  in  width.  Nonpareil  is  half  the 
size  in  body  of  Pica,  consequently  4  ems  of  Konpareil  equal 
1  of  Pica.  Agate  is  half  Small  Pica.  Pearl  is  half  Long 
Primer. 

In  1  square  inch  there  are 36    ems  Pica. 

"  50      "    Small  Pica. 

"  56J    "    Long  Primer. 

"  72J    "    Bourgeois. 


u 


"  "  87      "    Brevier. 

"  "  113f    "    Minion. 


262  FACTS   ABOUT   PKINTESTG   AND    BOOK-MAKING. 

In  1  square  inch  there  are 144  ems  Nonpareil. 

"  "  "  200|-    ''    Agate. 

"  "  "  225      "    Pearl. 

That  is  according  to  the  type  in  the  office  where  this  book 
is  printed  ;  different  founders  vary  the  sizes  of  type  slightly, 
so  that  the  above  is  not  a  perfectly  accurate  guide  in  measur- 
ing the  number  of  ems  in  a  page  or  book ;  still  it  is  sufficiently 
so  to  give  a  very  close  approximation  to  what  any  printer 
would  measure.  In  using  the  above  to  calculate  in  ems  the 
contents  of  a  page  or  book,  be  particular  to  calculate  square 
inches,  not  inches  square.  The  price  of  type-setting  in  New 
York  varies  with  the  different  printers.  Generally  the  price 
for  book  composition  is  from  80c.  to  $1.00  per  1000  ems. 
Much  figure-work  is  charged  extra,  so  also  is  an  extra  charge 
made  where  a  very  narrow  column  is  set.  Pearl  is  charged 
extra  on  account  of  its  smallness.  The  price  given  is  for 
plain  matter. 

Pressworh  is  charged  for  by  the  token,  which  is  250  im- 
pressions of  the  press.  Prices  vary  so  much  per  token,  ac- 
cording to  the  quality  of  the  work  and  the  number  of  im- 
pressions, that  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  give  an  idea  of  it 
that  will  benefit  the  reader.  Plain  book-work,  in  editions 
of  1000  to  2000  copies,  is  charged  usually  at  50c.  to  $1.00 
per  token. 

SIZES   OF  BOOKS. 

The  various  sizes  of  books  were  named  from  the  number 
of  folds  that  were  made  of  a  sheet  of  paper  19  inches  by  24, 


FACTS    ABOUT   PRINTING    AND   BOOK-MAKING.  263 

which,  at  the  time  the  sizes  of  books  acquired  their  names, 
was  the  largest  sheet  manufactured.  Thus,  a  sheet  of  that 
size  folded  once,  making  2  leaves  or  4  pages,  was  called  a 
folio  volume  ;  folded  twice,  making  4  leaves  or  8  pages,  was 
called  a  quarto  volume  ;  folded  four  times,  making  8  leaves 
or  16  pages,  was  called  an  octavo;  folded  six  times,  making 
12  leaves  or  24  pages,  was  called  a  duodecimo,  &c.  They 
are  written  thus :  2fo.,  4to,  8vo,  16mo,  &g. 

Afterwards,  when  the  sheets  came  to  be  manufactured 
larger,  books  continued  to  be  designated  as  above,  but  were 
distinguished  from  the  above  sizes  by  giving  the  new  sheets 
names,  and  prefixing  the  name  of  the  sheet  to  the  above. 
Thus,  a  sheet  22  inches  by  28  was  called  "  Koyal,"  and  hence 
books  printed  on  it  were  called  royal  folio,  royal  quarto, 
royal  octavo,  &g. 

Table,  showing  the  number  of  lea/ves  and  pages  from  the 
folding  of  a  sheet. 


Folds. 

Leaves. 

Pages. 

2fo 

1 

2 

4 

4to 

2 

4 

8 

8vo 

4 

8 

16 

12mo 

6 

12 

24 

16mo 

8 

16 

32 

18mo 

9 

18 

36 

24mo 

12 

24 

48 

32mo 

16 

82 

64 

IToTE, — The  foldings,  leaves,  and  pages  ol  the  royal  sheet, 
&c.,  are  the  same  as  the  above,  but  the  sheet  being  larger  of 
course  the  leaves  and  pages  are  larger. 


STKENGTH  OF    MATERIALS. 


Tensile  strength. 

Tensile  strength  is  the  amount  of  cohesion  existing  be- 
tween the  atoms  of  a  mass,  or  the  tenacity  with  which  the 
fibres  or  particles  of  a  body  resist  separation.  The  tensile 
strength  of  a  body  is  therefore  in  proportion  to  the  number 
of  its  fibres,  or  to  the  area  of  its  section. 

Table,  showing  the  weight  in  lbs.  necessary  to  tear  asunder 
one  square  inch  of  the  follovnng  substances. 

METALS. 


Designation. 

Copper,  wrought. 

♦'         cast 

"         wire  . ... 

Gold,  cast 

Iron,     '*    

Iron  Wire 

**    best  bar  . ... 

**    medium  bar. 

"    inferior    "  . 

Lead 

Platinum  wire  , . . 

Silver,  cast 

Steel  

Tin,  block  

Zinc,  cast 


Wt.  in  lbs. 


34,000 
19,000 
61,200 
20,000 
27,000 

103,000 
72,000 
60,000 
30,000 
880 
53,000 
40,000 

120,000 

5,000 

3,500 

42,000 


Designation. 

Ash 

Beach 

Birch 

Box 

Cedar 

Chesnut 

Cypress 

Elm 

Fir,  strongest 

"    American 

Lig.   vitse 

Locust ^ 

Mahogany 

Maple 

Oak,  American,  white . 

' '     seasoned 

Pino,  Pitch 

Poplar 

Sycamore 

Walnut 

Willow 


Wtinlbs. 


16,000 
11,500 
15,000 
20,000 
11,400 
10,500 

6,000 
13,400 
12,000 

8,800 
11.800 
20,600 
21,000 
10,500 
U,500 
13,600 
12,000 

7,000 
13,000 

7,800 
13,000 


STRENGTH    OF   MATERIALS.  265 

I'o  find  the  tensile  strength, 

EuLE. — Multiply  the  area  of  the  transverse  section  in 
inches,  by  the  weight  given  in  the  preceding  table,  and  the 
product  will  be  the  strength  in  lbs. 

Example. — What  is  the  tensile  strength  of  a  seasoned 
white  oak  scantling  2  inches  by  3  ? 

Solution. — 2x3=6,  area  of  transverse  section,  x  13,600 
=  81,600  lbs.     Am. 

Example  Second. — What  is  the  tensile  strength  of  a 
round  poplar  stick  3  inches  in  diameter  ? 

Solution. — Y.068,  area  of  circle  ((cide  table  of  the  areas 
of  circles),  x  7,000=49,476  lbs.     Ans. 

Example  Third. — What  is  the  tensile  strength  of  the  best 
bar  iron,  2  inches  broad  by  1  inch  thick  ? 

Solution.— 2x1=2,  area  of  transverse  section,  x  72,000 
=144,000  lbs.     Ans. 

Note. — The  above  gives  the  maximum  tensile  strength  of 
the  materials,  or  the  utmost  strain  they  are  capable  of  sus- 
taining when  drawn  lengthwise.  But  it  is  to  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  practical  value  is  about  one-fourth  of  the 
above. 

12 


^^^                                   STRENGTH    OF    MATEKIAT,i=i. 

Table,  showing  the  strength  of  iron  wire  rope  and  hempen 

cable. 

Circumference  of  1 

circumference  of  Hemp 

Breaking  weight 

Wire  Eope 

Trade 

Rope,  of  equal  strength, 

in  tons  of  2,000 

ia  incbes. 

Number. 

In  inches. 

lb.. 

6.02 

1 

15J 

74. 

6.20 

2 

65. 

6.44 

3 

13 

54. 

4.90 

4 

12 

43.6 

Fine  Wire,.. , 

4.50 
3.91 

6 
6 

''A 

35. 
27.2 

3.86 

7 

8 

iiO.2 

2.98 

8 

7 

16. 

2.56 

9 

6 

11.4 

2.45 

10 

6 

8.64 

4.45 

11 

lOf 

36. 

4.00 

12 

10 

30. 

3.63 

13 

H 

25. 

3.26 

14 

Sir 

20. 

2.98 

15 

1\ 

6 

16. 

2.68 

16 

12.3 

2.40 

17 

6^ 

8.8 

2.12 

18 

6 

7.6 

Coarse  Wire, 

1.9 

19 

4.75 

5.8 

1.63 

20 

4. 

4.09 

1.63 

21 

3.3 

2.83 

1.31 

22 

2.80 

2.13 

1.23 

23 

2.46 

1.65 

1.11 

24 

2.2 

1.38 

0.94 

25 

2.04 

1.03 

0.88 

26 

1.75 

0.81 

I 

0.78         1         27 

1.50 

0.6  6 

J.  A.  Roebling,  C.  K 

STRENGTH  OF  CABLES,  ROPES,  AND  HAWSERS. 

To  find  the  strength  of  cables. 

KuLE. — Multiply  the  square  of  the  circumference  in  inches 

by  120,  and  the  product  is  the  weight  in  lbs.  the  cable  will 

bear  with  safety. 

STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS, 


26T 


Example. — What  weight  will  a  cable  6  inches  in  circum- 
ference bear  with  safety  ? 

Solution.  — 6'=36  x  120^:4320  lbs.     Ans. 

To  find  the  strength  of  ropes  cmd  hawsers, 

EuLE. — Multiply  the  square  of  the  circumference  in  inches 
by  200,  and  it  gives  the  weight  in  lbs.  the  rope  will  bear 
with  safety. 

Table,  showing  lohat  weight  a  hemp  rope  will  hear  with 

safetoj. 


Circumference. 

lbs. 

Circumference. 

lbs. 

Circumference. 

lbs. 

1 

200 

^ 

2450. 

6 

7200. 

1 

312.6 

3} 

2812.5 

6J 

7812.5 

1 

450. 

4 

3200. 

6^ 

8450. 

If 

612.5 

41 

3612.6 

6* 

9112.5 

2 

800. 

4^ 

4050. 

7 

9800. 

2\ 

1012.5 

^1 

4512.6 

7i 

10512.5 

1\ 

1250. 

5 

6000. 

7, 

11250. 

1512.5 

tl 

5512.5 

7  ■ 

12012.5 

3 

1800. 

6050. 

8 

12800. 

3} 

2112.5 

5| 

6612.5 

STRENGTH  OF  METAL  AND  WOODEN  RODS. 

A  rod  having  an  area  of  the  1000th  part  of  a  square  inch, 
made  of  the  following  materials,  will  sustain  weights  as  fol- 
lows ; — 

Designation.  Lbs, 

Cast  steel 134 

Best  wrought  iron YO 

Cast  iron. " 19 

Copper 19 

Platinum 16 

Silver 11 

Gold 9 


Designation.  Lbs. 

Tin 6 

Lead 2 

Oak 12 

]^each 12|- 

Ash 14 

White  Pine 11 


268 


STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS. 


HEMPEN   CORDS. 


Hempen  cords  when  twisted  will  support  the  following 
weights  to  the  square  inch  of  their  section  : — 


Diameter.  Lbs. 

i  to  1  inch 8746 

1  to  3  inches 6800 


Diameter. 


Lbs. 


3  to  5  inches 5345 

5  to  7  inches 4860 


Note. — A  square  inch  of  hemp  fibres  will  support  a 
Aveight  of  9200  lbs. 

Tlie  maximmn  strength  of  a  good  hemp  rope  is  6400  lbs. 
to  the  square  inch.  \t^  practical  value  not  more  than  one- 
half  this  strain.  Before  breaking  it  stretches  from  \  to  \^ 
and  its  diameter  diminishes  from  \  to  \. 

The  strength  of  manilla  is  about  \  that  of  hemp.  White 
ropes  are  \  more  durable. 


LATERAL   OR   TRANSVERSE   STRENGTH. 

Table,  showing  the  transverse  strength  of  thnher^  1  foot 
long  and  1  inch  square  :  Weight  suspended  from  one  end. 


Materials. 

Breaking  weight. 

Greatest  deflec- 

Welg't  borne  with 

Value  for  gener'l 
use.    Lbs. 

LbB. 

tioQ.     InctieB. 

safety.     Lbs. 

White  oak,  seasoned 

240. 

9. 

196. 

40. 

Chesnut, 

170. 

1.8 

115. 

65. 

Yellow  pine,    " 

150. 

1.7 

100. 

62. 

White      "       " 

135. 

1.4 

95. 

64. 

Ash, 

175. 

2.4 

105. 

77. 

Hickory, 

270. 

8. 

200. 

60. 

STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS. 


269 


Table,  showing  the  transverse  strength  of  iron — square 
har^  2  inches  hy  12  inches  lOng  :  Weight  susjpended  from 
one  end. 


Material. 
Cast  iron 


Breaking  weight, 
Lbs. 
6781 


Weight  borne  safelj 
Lbs. 
4000 


Value. 
400 


Value    for  Kene- 

r&l  use. 

290 


Bound,  3  inches  diameter  hy  12  inches  long 
jpended  from  end. 


Weight  sus- 


Material. 
Cast  iron, 


Breaking  weight, 

Lba. 

12000 


Weight  borne  with 
safety.    Lba. 

8000 


Value. 
240 


Value  for  general 
use 


Note. — The  strength  of  a  projecting  beam  is  only  one- 
fourth  of  what  it  would  be  if  supported  at  both  ends,  and 
only  one-sixth  of  what  it  would  be  if  fixed  at  both  ends. 
The  former  is  to  the  latter  as  2  is  to  3. 

To  fimd  the  transverse  strength  when  the  har  or  heam  is 
fixed  at  one  end  and  the  load  applied  at  the  other. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  value  in  the  preceding  table  by  the  , 
breadth,  and  square  of  the  depth  in  inches,  and  divide  the 
product  by  the  length  in  feet.     The  quotient  will  be  the 
weight  in  lbs. 

Example. — What  weight  will  a  seasoned  white  oak  beam 
4  inches  square  and  projecting  36  inches  sustain  ? 

Solution. — 4x4"  x  40 =2560 -^ 3  feet,  projection,  =853J 
lbs.     Ans. 

Example  2d. — ^What  weight  will  a  cast  iron  bar  2  inches 
square  and  projecting  4  feet  sustain  ? 

Solution.— 2  x  2'  x  400=3200^4=800  lbs.     Ans. 


270  STRENGTH    OF   MATERIALS. 

Note. — ^When  the  beam  is  loaded  uniformly  throughout 
its  length  the  result  must  be  doubled. 

When  the  har  or  heam  is  fixed  at  hoth  ends  amd  the  weight 
apjplied  in  the  middle. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  vahie  in  the  preceding  table  by  six 
times  the  breadth,  and  the  square  of  the  depth  in  inches, 
and  divide  the  product  by  the  length  in  feet. 

Example. — What  weight  will  an  ash  beam  8  inches  deep 
by  10  broad  and  10  feet  long  sustain  in  the  middle,  when 
fixed  at  the  ends  ? 

Solution.— 77  x  60  x  8'=295680-^10=:29568  lbs.     Ans. 

Example  2d. — What  weight  will  a  cast  iron  bar  2  inches 
square  and  4  feet  long  support,  when  applied  in  the 
middle,  the  ends  being  fixed  ? 

Solution.— 400  x  12,  six  times  breadth,  x  2''=19200-t-4= 
4800  lbs.     Ans. 

Note. — When  the  weight  is  equally  distributed  along  its 
entire  length,  the  above  results  must  be  doubled. 

Wlien  the  har  or  heam  is  sv/pported  at  hoth  ends  o/nd  the 
weight  applied  in  the  middle. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  value  in  the  preceding  table  by  the 
square  of  the  depth,  and  four  times  the  breadth  in  inches, 
and  divide  the  product  by  the  length  in  feet. 

Example. — What  weight  will  a  white  pine  beam  8  inches 
broad  by  6  deep  and  6  feet  long  carry  when  applied  in  the 
middle,  the  ends  being  supported  ? 


STRENGTH    OF   MATERIALS. 


271 


Solution.— 64  x6'x  32=24576-f-6=4129+lbs.     Ans. 
Example  2d. — What  weight  will  a  cast  iron  bar  2  inches 
square  and  60  inches  between  the  supports  carry  ? 

Solution.— 400x2' x8=12800-=-5  feet  =2560  lbs.  Ans. 


Table,  showing  the  resistance  of  materials  to  crashing. 


Designation. 
WOODS. 

Ash 

Beech,  well  seasoned, 

Birch,         "        "        

(  edar, 

Elder , 

Elm,  well  seasoned, 

Fir.  (spruce,) , 

Mahogany, 

Oak , 

Pine,  pitch 

•'     yellow, 

Poplar, 

Sycamore,  highly  seasoned, 

Walnut, , 

Willow, 

METALa 

Brass,  y^ellow , 

Iron,  cast 

* '    bar 

"    boilerplate 

MINERALS. 

Brick,  common, 

'»      fire, , 

Brickwork, 

Chalk 

Granite 


Crushing  weight  per  square  inch. 


In  lbs. 
8,683 

19.363 

11,663 
5,863 
9.973 

10.331 
6  819 
8.198 
5.982 
6.790 
5  445 
5.124 

12,101 
7,227 
6,128 

10.304 
98.000 
4'i:000 
32,000 

800 

1,700 

612 

334 

11,000 


In  tons  of  2  00  lbs. 

4.3 

9.6 

6.8 

2.9 

4.9 

6.1 

3.4 

4.09 

2.9 

3.3 

2.7 

2.6 

6. 

3.6 

3.06 

6.15 
49. 
20. 
16. 

0.40 

C.85 

0.306 

0.16 

6.50 


STRENGTH  OF  ICE. 

Ice  2  inches  thick  will  bear  men  on  foot. 
"    4      "         "  "  "  horseback. 


RV^ 


'K>^  «e  -rue. 


272  STRENGTH   OF   MATERIALS. 

Ice  6   inches  thick  will  bear  cattle  and  teams  with  light 

loads. 
"    8       "  "  "        teams  with  heavy  loads. 

^'  10       "  "      will  sustain  a  pressure  of  1000  lbs.  per 

square  foot. 

This  supposes  the  ice  to  be  sound  throughout  its  whole 
thickness,  without  "snow-ice." 


WEIGHT  OF  SQUAEE  EOLLED   IKOK 


From  -^  inch  to  12  inches,  and  1  yoot  in  length. 


Str,o  in 
inches. 


Weight  ia 
pounds. 


.013 

.053 

.118 

.211 
.475 

.845 
1.320 
1.901 
2.688 
3.380 
4.278 
6.280 
6.390 
7.604 
8.926 
10.352 
11.883 


Size  in 
inches. 


Weight  in 
pounds. 


13.520 
15.263 
17.112 
19.066 
21.120 
23.292 
25.560 
27.939 
30.416 
33.010 
35.704 
38.503 
41.408 
44.418 
47.534 
50.756 
64.084 
67.517 
61.055 


Size  in 
inches. 


4. 1 
4.1 
4. 1 

tl 

6. 

6.^ 

n 

6. 1 


6:1 

6. 1 

7. 

7} 


Weight  in 
pounds. 

64.700 

68.448 

72.305 

76.264 

80.333 

84. 48 'J 

88.784 

93.168 

97.657 

102.240 

106.953 

111.756 

116.671 

121.664 

132.040 

142.816 

164.012 

165.632 

177.672 


Size  in 
inches, 


8-i 


9.i 
9. 1 
10. 
lO.J 
10. i 
10. 1 

il. 

11. J 

11.^ 
11. i 

12. 


Weight  in 
pounds. 


190.136 
203.024 
216.336 
230.068 
244.220 
258.800 
273.792 
289.220 
305.056 
321.332 
337.920 
355.136 
372.672 
390.628 
408.9^0 
427.812 
447.024 
466.684 
486.656 


12* 


274  WEIGHT  OF   SQUARE   ROLLED   IRON. 

Example. — What  is  the  weight  of  a  bar  of  rolled  iron  1^ 
inches  square  and  12  inches  long? 

In  column  1st  find  1^,  and  opposite  to  it  is  7.604  pounds, 
which  is  7  lbs.  and  -^-^  of  a  lb.  If  the  lesser  denomina- 
tion of  ounces  is  required,  the  result  is  obtained  as  follows : 
Multiply  the  remainder  by  16,  pointing  off  the  decimals  as 
in  multiplication  of  decimals,  and  the  figures  remaining  on 
the  left  of  the  point  indicate  the  number  of  ounces. 

Thus,  -j^QgV  of  a  lb.  =  .604 

16 


9.664  ounces. 

The  weight,  then,  is  7  lbs.  9.y<^Yir  ounces. 

If  the  weight  for  less  than  a  foot  in  length  was  required, 
the  readiest  operation  is  this : 

Example. — What  is  the  weight  of  a  bar  6 J  inches  square 
and  9|-  inches  long  ? 

In  column  5th,  opposite  to  6 J,  is  132.040,  which  is  the 
weight  for  a  foot  in  length. 

6J^xl2  inches  =132.040 


6. 

a 

isi 

= 

66.020 

3. 

u 

isi 

of  6= 

33.010 

■i 

u 

isi 

of  3= 

6.5016 

•i 

u 

isi 

ofh= 

2.7508 

9.} 

108.,^ftMr 

WEIGHT  OF  ROUND  ROLLED  IRON. 


From  \  inch  to  12  inches  diameter^  and  1  foot  in  length. 


Diamet'r 
In  inches 


■h 


Weight  In 
pounds. 


010 

.041 

.093 

.165 

.373 

.663 

1.043 

1.493 

2.032 

2.654 

3.360 

4.172 

6.019 

5.972 

7.010 

8.128 

9.333 

10.616 


Diamet'r 
in  inches 


Waieht  in 
pounds. 


11.988 
13,440 
14.975 
16.688 
18.293 
20.076 
21.944 
23.888 
25.926 
28.040 
30.240 
32.512 
34.886 
37.332 
39.864 
42.464 
45.174 
47.952 
50.815 


Diamet'r 
in  inches 


4.i 
4. 1 
4-1 

5. 

5-1 
5.i 

5:1 

5. 1 
5.1 
5. 1 
6. 
6-1 


6.f 
7. 


Weight  in 
pounds. 

53.760 

56.788 

69.900 

63.094 

66.752 

69.731 

73.172 

76.700 

80.304 

84.001 

87.776 

91 . 634 

95.652 

103.704 

112.160 

120.960 

130.048 

139.544 

149.328 


Diamet'r 
In  inches 


I.* 

8.i 

8.1 

8. 1 

9. 

9.i 

9.i 

9.1 

10. 

10. i 

10. i 

10. 1 

11. 

11. i 

11. 
11. 

12. 


Weight  la 
pounds. 


159.456 
169.856 
180.696 
191.808 
203.260 
215.040 
227.152 
239.600 
252.376 
266 . 288 
278.924 
282.988 
306.800 
321.216 
336.004 
351.104 
366.636 
382.208 


The  application  of  this  table  is  precisely  similar  to  that 
of  the  preceding  one. 


MASONEY. 


A  perch  of  stone  is  24.75  cubic  feet ;  when  built  in  the 
wall,  22  cubic  feet  make  1  perch,  2|  cubic  feet  being 
allowed  for  the  mortar  and  filling. 

Three  pecks,  of  lime  and  four  bushels  of  sand  to  a  perch 
of  wall. 

To  find  the  number  of  perches  of  stone  in  walls. 

KuLE. — Multiply  the  length  in  feet  by  the  height  in  feet, 
and  that  by  the  thickness  in  feet,  and  divide  the  product  by 
22,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  perches  of  stone 
in  the  wall. 


MASONBY.  277 

Example. — How  many  perches  of  stone  contained  in  a 
wall  40  feet  long,  20  feet  high,  and  18  inches  thick  ? 

Solution. — iO  feet,  length,  x  20  ft.,  height,  x  IJ  feet, 
thick,=12004-22=54:.54:  perches.     Am. 

Note. — To  find  the  number  of  perches  of  masonry,  divide 
the  product,  as  above,  by  24.75,  instead  of  22. 

BricJc-worlc. 

The  dimensions  of  common  bricks  are  from  7f  to  8  inches 
long,  by  41  wide,  and  2|-  thick.  Front  bricks  are  8  J  inches 
long,  by  4^  wide,  and  2|-  thick. 

The  usual  size  of  fire  bricks  is  9i  inches  long,  by  41  wide, 
by  2-8-  thick. 

Twenty  common  bricks  to  a  cubic  foot  when  laid ;  15 
common  bricks  to  a  foot  of  8-inch  wall  when  laid. 

To  find  the  number  of  coinmon  hricks  in  a  wall. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  length  of  the  wall  in  feet  by  the 
height  in  feet,  and  that  by  its  thickness  in  feet,  and  that 
again  by  20,  and  the  product  will  be  the  number  of  bricks 
in  the  wall. 

Example. — How  many  common  bricks  in  a  wall  40  feet 
long  by  20  feet  high  and  12  inches  thick  ? 

Solution. — 40  ft.,  length,  x  20  ft.,  height,  x  1  ft.,  thick, 
X  20=16000.     Ans. 

Note. — For  walls  8  ins.  thick,  multiply  the  length  in  feet 
by  the  height  in  feet,  and  that  by  15,  and  the  product  will 
be  the  number  of  bricks  in  the  wall. 


278  MASONRY. 

When  the  wall  is  perforated  by  doors  and  windows,  or 
other  openings,  find  the  sum  of  their  cubic  feet  by  severally 
multiplying  their  lengths  and  widths  and  thicknesses  in  feet 
together,  and  deducting  the  whole  from  the  cubic  contents 
of  the  wall,  including  the  openings,  before  multiplying  by 
20  or  16,  as  above. 

Laths. 

Laths  are  li  to  \\  inches  wide  by  4  feet  long,  are  usually 
set  \  inch  apart,  and  a  bundle  contains  100. 


THE  MECHAISriCAL  POWEKS. 

The  mechanical  powers  are  three  in  number,  namely : 
the  LEVER,  the  inclined  plane,  and  the  pulley.  The 
wheel  and  the  axle  is  a  revolving  lever ;  the  wedge  is  a 
dovhle  inclined  plane,  and  the  screw  is  a  revolvmg  inclined 
plane. 

THE    LEVER. 

To  Jmd  the  length  of  the  longest  a/rm  of  the  lever ;  the 
weight  to  he  raised^  the  power  to  he  applied^  and  the  length 
of  the  shortest  arm  of  the  lever  heing  given. 

KuLE. — Multiply  the  weight  by  its  distance  from  the  fal- 
crum  and  divide  the  product  by  the  power,  and  the  quotient 
is  the  distance  from  the  fulcrum  the  power  must  be  applied, 
or,  the  longest  arm  of  the  lever. 

Example. — Given,  a  weight  of  900  lbs.,  distant  2  feet  from 
the  fulcrum,  to  be  raised  by  a  force  or  power  of  Y5  lbs. ;  re- 
quired, the  length  of  the  longest  arm  of  the  lever. 

Solution. — 900  lbs.,  the  weight,  x  2  feet,  distance  from 
fulcrum, =1 800 -^ 75  lbs.,  the  power,=24  feet.     Ans. 

To  find  the  length  of  the  sJwrtest  arm  of  the  lever ;  the 
weight  to  he  raised,  the  power  to  he  applied,  amd  the  length 
of  the  longest  a/i^m  of  the  lever  heing  given. 


280  THE  MECHAinOAL   POWERS. 

EuLE. — Multiply  the  power  by  its  distance  from  the  ful- 
crum, and  divide  the  product  by  the  weight,  and  the  quo- 
tient is  the  distance  the  weight  must  be  placed  from  the 
fulcrum,  or,  the  shortest  arm  of  the  lever. 

Example. — ^What  distance  must  a  weight  of  800  lbs.  be 
placed  from  the  fulcrum,  to  be  raised  by  a  power  of  150  lbs. 
placed  8  feet  from  the  fulcrum  ? 

Solution. — 150  lbs.,  the  power,  x  96  inches,  its  distance 
from  the  fulcrum, = 14400 -r- 800  lbs.,  the  weight, =18  inches. 
Ans. 

To  find  the  power  required  to  raise  a  given  weight  /  the 
distances  of  the  weight  and  the  power  from  the  fulcrum 
heing  given. 

Kule. — Multiply  the  weight  by  its  distance  from  the  ful- 
crum and  divide  the  product  by  the  distance  of  the  power 
from  the  fulcrum. 

Example. —  What  power  will  raise  a  weight  of  600  lbs. 
20  inches  from  the  fulcrum,  applied  8  feet  from  the  ful- 
crum % 

Solution. — 600  lbs.,  weight,  x  20  inches,  distance  of  weight 
from  fulcrum, =12000-^96  inches,  distance  of  power  from 
fulcrum, =125  lbs.     Ans. 

To  fi/nd  the  weighty  at  a  gi/ven  distance  from  the  fulcrum, 
a  gi/ven  power  at  a  given  distance  from  the  fulcrum  will 
raise. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  power  by  its  distance  from  the  ful- 


THE    MECHANICAL    POWERS.  281 

crum  and  divide  the  product  by  the  distance  of  the  weight 
from  the  fulcrum. 

Example. — What  weight  will  a  power  of  250  lbs.  10 
feet  from  the  fulcrum  raise,  the  weight  placed  20  inches 
from  the  fulcrum  ? 

Solution. — 250  lbs.,  the  power,  x  120  inches,  its  distance 
from  the  fulcrum, =30000 -^20  inches,  distance  of  weight 
from  fulcrum, =1500  lbs.     Ans. 

The  GENERAL  RULE,  therefore,  for  ascertaining  the  rela- 
tion of  power  to  weight  in  a  lever,  is  :  the  power  applied, 
multiplied  by  its  distance  from  the  fulcrum,  is  equal  to  the 
weight  multiplied  by  its  distance  from  the  fulcrum. 

The  pressure  upon  the  fulcrum  equals  the  sum  of  the 
weight  and  power. 

IsToTE. — It  must  be  remembered  that,  according  to  the 
foregoing  rules  and  examples,  the  weight  and  force  are  made 
by  the  introduction  of  the  lever  to  equal  or  balance  each 
other.  Hence,  to  get  at  their  practical  value,  we  must  either 
shorten  the  short  arm,  or  lengthen  the  long  arm  of  the  lever, 
add  to  the  power,  or  deduct  from  the  weight,  to  such  an 
extent  as  each  may  judge  for  himself  expedient  under  the 
circumstances. 


282 


THE  MECHANICAL   POWERS. 


THE   INCLINED  PLANE. 


To  find  the  power  or  force  required  to  raise  a>  given  weight 
up  cm  inclined  plane  of  a  given  length  amd  height. 

KuLE. — As  the  length  of  the  plane  is  to  its  height,  so  is 
the  weight  to  the  power. 

Example. — Required  the  power  necessary  to  raise  1500 
lbs.  up  an  inclined  plane  20  feet  long  and  8  feet  high  ? 

Solution.— As  20  :  8 : :  1500  :  600  lbs.     Ans. 

To  find  the  height  of  an  inclined  plane  wJien  its  length 
and  hose  are  given. 

EuLE.— Subtract  the  square  of  the  base  from  the  square 
of  the  length,  and  the  square  root  of  the  remainder  is  the 
height. 

Example. — Given  an  inclined  plane,  the  length  of  which 
is  40  feet  and  base  38 :  required,  its  height  ? 

Solution.— 1600,  square  of  length,  — 1444,  square  of 
base,  =    |/  156  =  12.49  feet.    Ans. 

To  find  the  length  when  its  hose  and  height  are  given. 


THE   MECHANICAL    POWERS.  283 

Rule. — Add  the  squares  of  the  height  and  the  base,  and 
the  square  root  of  their  sum  will  be  the  length. 

Example. — ^What  is  the  length  of  an  inclined  plane  the 
base  of  which  is  20  feet  and  its  height  12  ? 

Solution. — 400,  square  of  base,  +  144,  square  of  height, 
=  4,  544  =  23.32  feet.     A7is, 

To  find  the  hose  when  the  length  and  height  are  given. 

Rule. — Subtract  the  square  of  the  height  from  the  square 
of  the  length,  and  the  square  root  of  the  remainder  will  be 
the  base. 

Example. — ^What  is  the  base  of  an  inclined  plane,  whose 
height  is  10  feet,  and  length  25  ? 

Solution. — 625,  square  of  length,  — 100,  square  of 
height,  =  /  525  =  22.91  feet.     Ans, 

To  fim,d  the  'pressure  of  a  weight  on  an  inclined  plane  when 
raised  hy  its  equivalent  power. 

Rule. — As  the  length  is  to  the  weight,  so  is  the  base  to 
the  pressure. 

Example. — What  is  the  pressure  of  1000  lbs.  on  an  in- 
clined plane,  the  length  of  which  is  80  feet  and  the  base  70  ? 

Solution.— 80  feet,  length,  :  1000  lbs.,  ::  70  feet,  base, 
:  875  lbs.     Ans. 

Notes. — When  the  line  of  direction  of  the  power  is  par- 
allel to  the  plane,  the  power  is  least  and  the  pressure 
least. 


284  THE   MECHAJ^flCAL    POWEES. 

When  the  power  does  not  run  parallel  to  the  plane,  draw 
a  line  perpendicular  to  the  direction  of  the  power's  action 
from  the  end  of  the  base  line  (at  the  back  of  the  plane),  and 
the  intersection  of  this  line  on  the  length  will  determine  the 
length  and  height  of  the  base. 


THE  WHEEL  AND  THE  AXLE. 

The  power  multiplied  by  the  radius  of  the  wheel  is  equal 
to  the  weight  multiplied  by  the  radius  of  the  axle. 

As  the  radius  of  the  wheel  is  to  the  radius  of  the  axle,  so 
is  the  effect  to  the  power. 

To  find  the  weight  a  given  tractile  force  or  jpower  will 
move  on  a  wheel  and  axle  of  given  radii, 

EuLE. — Multiply  the  tractile  or  drawing  force  by  the 
radius  of  the  wheel,  and  divide  the  product  by  the  radius  of 
the  axle. 

Example. — What  weight  will  a  tractile  force  of  250  lbs. 
draw  on  a  wheel  (or  wheels)  of  a  radius  of  3  feet :  radius  of 
axle  4  inches  ? 

Solution. — 250  lbs.,  tractile  force,  x  36  inches,  radius 
of  wheel,  =  9000^-4  inches,  radius  of  axle,  =  2250  lbs.   An^. 

Tofim^d  the  tractile  force  required  to  move  a  gwen  weight 
on  a  wheel  and  axle  of  given  radii. 


THE    MECHANICAL    POWERS.  285 

Rule. — Multiply  the  weight  by  the  radius  of  the  axle 
and  divide  the  product  by  the  radius  of  the  wheel. 

Example. — Required,  the  tractile  force  necessary  to  draw 
2000  lbs.  on  a  wheel  of  2J  feet  radius,  and  axle  of  3  inches 
radius  ? 

SoLimoN. — 2000  lbs.,  weight,  x  3  inches,  radius  of 
axle,  =  6000 -f- 30  inches,  radius  of  wheel,  =  200  lbs.    Ans. 

To  find  the  radius  required  for  a  wheel  to  move  a  given 
weight  hy  a  given  force  on  a  given  radius  of  axle. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  weight  by  the  radius  of  the  axle 
and  divide  the  product  by  the  force. 

Example. — What  radius  must  a  wheel  have,  the  radius 
of  whose  axle  is  4  inches,  to  move  a  weight  of  1320  lbs.  by  a 
force  of  220  lbs  ? 

Solution. — 1320  lbs.,  weight,  x  4  inches,  radius  of  axle, 
=  5280  H-220  lbs.,  tractile  force,  =  24  inches.     Ans. 

To  find  the  radius  of  an  axle  required  to  move  a  given 
weight  hy  a  given  force,  on  a  wheel  of  a  given  radices. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  force  by  the  radius  of  the  wheel  and 
divide  the  product  by  the  weight. 

Example. — A  weight  of  1200  lbs.  is  to  be  moved  on  a 
wheel  of  4  feet  radius  by  a  force  of  150  lbs. :  What  must  be 
the  radius  of  the  axle  ? 

Solution. — 150  lbs.,  force,  x  48  inches,  radius  of  wheel,  = 
Y200 -H 1200  lbs. = 6  inches.     Ans. 


286  THE  MECHANICAL   POWERS. 

Note. — It  will  be  observed  that,  according  to  the  above 
rules,  illustrated  by  the  foregoing  examples,  the  power  or 
force  of  traction  and  the  weight  or  load  are  equivalents ; 
that  is  to  say,  the  one  is,  by  the  interposition  of  the  wheel 
and  axle,  made  to  counterpoise  the  other.  To  find  their 
eo^y  practical  value ^  deduct  J  from  the  weight,  or  add  ^  to 
the  tractile  force. 


THE  WEDGE. 


To  Jmd  the  force  necessary  to  sepa/rate  two  bodies  from 
one  another  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  hack  of  the  wedge. 

Rule. — As  the  length  of  the  wedge  is  to  half  its  back,  so 
is  the  resistance  to  the  force. 

Example. — The  length  of  the  back  of  a  double  wedge  is 
6  inches,  and  its  length  through  the  middle  12  inches.  Re- 
quired, the  force  necessary  to  separate  a  substance  having  a 
resistance  of  200  lbs.  ? 


THE   MECHANICAL    POWEKS.  287 

Solution. — 12  inches,  length,  :  3  inches,  back,  : :  200  lbs., 
resistance,  :  50  lbs.     Ans. 

To  jmd  the  requisite  force  when  only  one  of  the  bodies  is 
movable. 

Rule. — As  the  length  of  the  wedge  is  to  its  back,  so  is 
the  resistance  to  the  force. 

Example. — What  power  applied  to  the  back  of  a  wedge 
will  raise  a  weight  of  20,000  lbs.;  the  wedge  being  6  inches 
deep  and  100  long  on  its  base  ? 

Solution. — 100  inches,  length,  :  6  inches,  depth,  ::  20,- 
000  lbs.,  weight,  :  1200  lbs.     Ans. 

Note. — The  power  of  the  wedge  increases  as  its  length 
increases,  or  as  the  thickness  of  its  back  decreases. 


288 


THE   MECHANICAL   POWERS. 


THE   SCREW. 


The  screw  is  a  revolving  inclined  plane,  or  an  inclined 
plane  wound  round  a  cylinder.  Hence,  when  its  length  and 
its  pitch,  or  height,  are  ascertained,  the  same  rules  that 
govern  the  inclined  plane  apply  to  the  screw. 

To  find  the  length  of  the  inclined  plane  of  a  screw. 

KuLE. — Add  the  square  of  the  circumference  of  the  screw 
to  the  square  of  the  pitch,  or  distance  between  the  threads, 
and  take  the  square  root  of  the  same,  which  will  be  the 
length  of  the  plane.  The  height  is  the  distance  between 
the  consecutive  threads. 


THE   MECHANICAL    POWERS.  289 

Example. — What  is  the  length  of  the  inclined  plane  of  a 
screw  of  12  inches  circumference  and  1  inch  pitch  ? 

Solution.— 12"  + r =145  and  4/145=12.04159  inches. 
Ans. 

]^ote. — It  will  be  observed  that  the  length  of  the  plane  as 
given  in  the  above  example  is  the  length  of  only  one  turning 
of  the  screw,  or  the  length  of  once  round  the  circumference, 
which,  in  ascertaining  the  power  of  a  screw,  is  all  that  is 
necessary  to  be  known  of  the  length.  The  entire  length  of 
the  plane  and  the  entire  height  of  the  screw  have  nothing 
to  do  with  its  power.  A  single  section,  comprising  one 
revolution  of  the  plane  or  the  cylinder,  is  enough. 

To  find  the  power  required  to  raise  a  given  weight  hy 
means  of  a  screw  of  given  dimensions, 

KuLE. — As  the  length  of  the  inclined  plane  is  to  the 
pitch,  or  height  of  it,  so  is  the  weight  to  the  power. 

Example. — What  is  the  power  requisite  to  raise  9000  lbs. 
by  a  screw  15  inclies  circumference,  and  1 J  inches  pitch  ? 

Solution.— 15^  +  1  J''=227i  and  4/227^=15.62  inches, 
length,  then  15.62  inches,  length,  :  IJ-  inches,  pitch, : :  9000 
lbs.,  weight,  :  864.27  lbs.     Ans. 

Note. — When  a  wheel  or  capstan  is  applied  to  turn  the 

screw,  the  length  of  the  lever  is  the  radius  of  the  circle 

described  by  the  handle  of  the  wheel  or  capstan  bar,  and 

half  the  diameter  of  the  screw  is  the  radius  of  the  axle. 

When  the  screw  is  turned  by  a  wheel,  a  crank,  or  capstan, 

1*3 


290 


THE   MECHANICAL    POWERS. 


find  the  power  of  the  wheel,  crank,  or  capstan  by  means  of 
the  rules  given  under  "  The  Wheel  and  the  Axle,"  and  de- 
duct the  force  thus  acquired  from  the  force  necessary  to  drive 
the  screw  in  raising  the  weight  alone.  The  remainder  is  the 
force  required  to  raise  the  weight  by  the  combined  power 
of  the  screw  and  the  lever. 


THE  PULLEY. 


When  only  one  cord  or  rope  is  used. 

To  find  the  force  necessary  to  raise  a  gwen  weight  hy 
means  of  a  pulley  of  a  given  number  of  sheaves^  (&c. 

Rule. — Divide  the  weight  to  be  raised  by  the  number  of 
parts  of  the  rope  engaged  in  supporting  the  lower  or  mov- 
able block. 


THE   MECHANICAL    POWERS.  291 

Example. — What  is  the  force  required  to  raise  600  lbs. 
by  means  of  a  lower  block  containing  six  sheaves :  rope 
fastened  to  the  upper  block  ? 

Solution.— 2x6=12;  then,  600-rl2=501bs.    Ans. 

Example  2d. — What  force  when  the  rope  is  fastened  to 
the  lower  block  ? 

Solution.— 6  x  2  +  1=13  ;  then  600+13=46.16  lbs.  Ans, 

When  more  than  one  rope  is  used. 

In  a  Spanish  Burton^  where  there  are  two  ropes,  two 
movable  pulleys,  and  one  fixed  and  one  stationary  pulley, 
with  the  ends  of  one  rope  fastened  to  the  support  and 
upper  movable  pulley,  and  the.  ends  of  oe  other  fastened 
to  the  lower  block  and  the  powder,  the  weight  is  to  the 
power  as  5  to  1. 

In  one  where  the  ends  of  one  rope  are  fastened  to  the 
support  and  "the  power,  and  the  ends  of  the  other  to  the 
lower  and  upper  blocks,  the  weight  is  to  the  power  as  4  to  1. 


DEFINITIONS   OF  MATHEMATICAL  FOEMS. 

^*®-  *•  Parallel     Lines     are    everywhere 

equally  distant ;  as,  A  B  and  C  D. 

An  Angle  is  the  difference  of  direc- 
tion between  two  lines  which  meet ; 
as,  A  D  E.  The  point  of  meeting  is 
called  the  vertex  of  the  angle,  and  when 
_  the  angle  is  named  the  letter  at  the 
vertex  is  placed  second ;  as,  C  D  E. 

A  Right  Angle  is  formed  when  a 

straight  line  meeting  another   makes 

two  equal  angles ;  as,  A  D  C  and  C  D  B. 

An  Acute  Angle  is  one  less  than  a 

right  angle ;  as,  E  B  D,  Fig.  3. 

An  Obtuse  Angle  *  is  one   greater 
^  than  a  right  angle  ;  as,  A  D  E,  Fig.  4. 

A  Surface  has  two  dimensions — length  and  breadth. 
A  Triangle  is  a  figure  having  three  sides ;  as,  A  B  C, 
Fig.  5. 

FIG.  5.  Tj^^  Altitude  of  a  triangle  is  the  per- 

pendicular distance  of  the  vertex  from 
the  line  of  the  base ;  as,  B  C  is  the 
altitude  of  the  triangle  ABC,  Fig.  5. 
A  Right- Angle  Triangle  is  a  triangle  having  aright  angle  ; 

*  As  the  right  angle  contains  90°,  it  follows  that  the  acute  angle  contains 
less,  and  the  obtuse  angle  more,  than  90°. 


B 


DEFINITIONS    OF    MATHEMATICAL    FORMS. 


293 


Fig. 

\ 

6. 

FtG. 

7. 

as,  A  C  B,  Fig.  5.    The  side  opposite  the  right  angle  is  called 
the  hypothenuse ;  as,  A  B. 

A  Parallelogram  is  a  four-sided  fig- 
ure whose  opposite  sides  are  parallel; 
as,  Fig.  6. 

A  Rectangle  is  a  parallelogram 
whose  angles  are  right  angles;  as. 
Fig.  T. 

A  Square  is  a  rectangle  the  sides  of  which         fiq.  s. 
are  equal.     Fig.  8.  ^      • — 1^ 

A  Trapezoid  is  a  four-sided  figure  having  but 
two  of  its  sides  parallel ;  as,  A  B  C  D,  Fig.  9. 

The  Altitude  of  a  Parallelogram,  a 
Rectangle,  a  Square  or  a  Trapezoid  is 
the  perpendicular  distance  between 
the  base  and  the  line  of  the  parallel  side 
opposite  the  base ;  as,  E  F,  Fig.  9. 

A  Circle  is  a  plane  surface  bounded  by  a  line,  every  point 
of  which  is  equally  distant  from  a  point  called  the  centre ; 
as,  A  B  C  D,  Fig.  10. 

The  Circumference  of  a  circle  is  the  line 
by  which  it  is  bounded ;  as,  A  B  C  D,  Fig.  10. 

The  Diameter  of  a  circle  is  a  straight  line 
passing  through  the  centre  and  terminating 
in  the  circumference ;  as,  D  E  B,  Fig.  10. 

The  Radius  of  a  circle  is  the  distance  from  the  centre  to 
the  circumference :  as,  E  F. 


Fig.  9. 
F 


\IL7 


294 


DEFINITIONS    OF    MATHEMATICAL    FORMS. 


Fig.  11, 


Pig.  12. 


Fig.  13. 


Fig.  14. 


Fig.  15. 


Fig.  K) 


Fig.  17. 


Fig.  18. 


A  Solid  has  three  dimensions — ^length, 
breadth,  and  thickness ;  as,  Fig.  11. 

A  Prism  is  a  solid  whose  sides  are  paral- 
lelograms, and  whose  ends  are  equal  and 
similar ;  as.  Fig.  12. 

When  the  ends  of  a  prism  are  triangular, 
it  is  called  a  triangular  prism  j  as.  Fig.  12. 

When  the  ends  of  a  prism  are  square,  it 
is  called  a  square  prism  /  as,  Fig.  13. 

When  the  ends  of  a  prism  are  hexagonal,, 
it  is  called  a  hexagonal  prism  ;  as.  Fig.  14. 

When  the  ends  of  a  prism  are  circular,  it 
is  called  a  cylinder  ;^  as.  Fig.  15. 

When  all  the  sides  of  a  rectangular  prism 

are  square,  it  is  called  a  cube  /  as.  Fig.  16. 

A  Pyramid  is  a  solid,  the  base  of  which  is  a 

plane  rectilinear  figure,  and  having  sides  which 

are  triangles  whose  vertices  meet  at  a  point  at 

the  top  called  the  vertex  of  the  pyramid.  Fig.  IT. 

The  Altitude  of  a  pyramid  or  a  cone  is  the 

perpendicular  distance  from  the  vertex  to  the 

plane  of  the  base  ;  as,  Fig.  17. 

A  Cone  is  a  solid,  the  base  of  which  is  ?.  circle, 
and  which  tapers  uniformly  to  a  point  at  the  top 
called  a  vertex.     Ym.  18. 


A  cylinder  is  a  regular  polygon,  or  prism,  with  an  infinite  number  of  sides. 


DEFINITIONS   OF    MATHEMATICAL    FORMS. 


295 


A  Frustum  of  a  pyramid  or  a  cone  is  the 
|)art  that  remains  after  cutting  off  the  top  bj  a 
plane  parallel  to  the  base. 

Fig.  19  represents  the  frustum  of  a  pyramid. 

Fig.  20  represents  the  frustum  of  a  cone. 

An  Ellijpse  is  a  plane  curve  such  that  the  sums 
<of  the  distances  of  any  points  in  the  bounding 
line  from  two  points  within  called  the  foci  are 
.always  equal. 

The  line  A  B  passing  through  the  foci  is 
^called  the  major  diameter ;  and  the  diame- 
ter perpendicular  to  A  B  at  its  centre  is 
•called  the  minor  diameter. 

A  S])here  is  a  solid,  bounded  by  a  convex  sur- 
face, every  point  of  which  is  equally  distant  from 
a  point  within  called  the  centre ;  as.  Fig.  22. 

A  Spheroid  is  a  solid,  generated  by  the  revo- 
lution of  an  ellipse  about  one  of  its  diameters. 
If  the  ellipse  revolves  about  its  major  diameter 
the  spheroid  is  called  j?/'c>to6.  If  about  its  mi- 
nor diameter  the  spheroid  is  called  dblale. 

Fig.  23  represents  2i  prolate  spheroid. 

Fig.  24:  represents  an  oUate  spheroid. 


Fig.  19 


Fig.  20. 


Fig.  21. 


®' 


Fig.  22. 


CIRCLES. 

To  find  the  circumference  of  a  circle. 

Rule  1. — Multiply  the  diameter  by  3.1416,  and  the  pro- 
duct will  be  the  circumference. 

Rule  2. — Or,  as  7  is  to  22  so  is  the  diameter  to  the  cir- 
cumference. 

Example. — What  is  the  circumference  of  a  circle  whose 
diameter  is  25  ? 

Solution.— 25x3.1416=78.54.  Ans,     By  Rule  2.-7: 
22::25  :  78.5.  Ans. 

To  find  the  dimneter  of  a  circle. 

Rule  1. — Divide  the  circumference  by  3.1416,  and  the 
quotient  will  be  the  diameter. 

Rule  2. —  Or,  as  22  is  to  7,  so  is  the  circumference  to  the 
diameter. 

Example. — What  is  the  diameter  of  a  circle  whose  cir- 
cumference is  69.11  ? 

Solution.— 69.11-^3.1416=22.  Ans.     By  Rule  2.-22  : 
7:: 69.11  :  22.  Ans. 

To  fmd  the  area  of  a  circle. 

Rule  1. — Multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  by  .7854, 
or  the  square  of  the  circumference  by  .07958,  and  the  pro- 
duct will  be  the  area. 


CIRCLES.  297 

EuLE  2. — Or,  multiply  half  the  circumference  by  half 
the  diameter. 

Rule  3. — Or,  as  14  is  to  11,  so  is  the  square  of  the  diam- 
eter to  the  area. 

RuLc  4. — Or,  as  88  is  to  7,  so  is  the  square  of  the  circum- 
ference to  the  area. 

To  find  the  side  of  an  equal  sqioare  containing  the  same 
area  as  a  given  circle. 

EuLE. — Take  the  square  root  of  the  area,  which  will  be 
the  side  of  the  equal  square. 

Tofi/nd  the  solidity  of  a  sphere. 

EuLE. — Multiply  the  cube  of  the  diameter  by  .5236,  and 
the  product  is  the  solidity. 

EXPLANATION    AND   TSE    OF   THE   FOLLOWING   TABLE. 

In  the  left  hand  column  will  be  found  the  diameter  of  the 
circle;  in  the  next  column  to  the  right  will  be  found  its 
corresponding  circumference ;  in  the  third  to  the  right  will 
be  found  the  area,  and  in  the  right  hand  column  will  be 
found  the  length  of  the  side  of  an  equal  square  containing 
the  same  area. 

Example. — What  is  the  side  of  a  square  having  the  same 
area  as  a  circle  of  64J  inches  diameter  ? 

Solution. — Find  64^  in  the  left-hand  column,  and  oppo- 
site it   to  the  right,   under  the  heading  "  Side   of  Equal 

Square,''  will  be  found  57.101,  the  length  of  the  side.  Ans. 

13* 


298 

CmOLES. 

Table,  showing  the  Areas  of  Circles  and  the  Sides  of  thei/r 

equivalent  Squa/res^  from  1  to  100. 

Side  of 

Side  of 

Di&m. 

Circum. 

Area. 

equal  square. 

Diam. 

Circum. 

Area. 

equal  square. 

" 

.3926 

.01227 

.110 

Ill" 

36.91 

108.43 

10.413 

.7854 

.04908 

.221 

12 

37.69 

113.09 

10.634 

1 

1.570 

.1963 

.443 

12^ 

38.48 

117.85 

10.856 

I 

2.356 

.4417 

.663 

12i 

39.27 

122.71 

11.077 

1 

3.141 

.7854 

.886 

12f 

40.05 

127.67 

11.299 

3.927 

1.227 

1.107 

13 

40.84 

132.73 

11.520 

4.712 

1.767 

1.329 

13i 

41.62 

137.88 

11.742 

If 

6.497 

2.404 

1.550 

13| 
13f 

42.41 

143.13 

11.9164 

2 

6.283 

3.141 

1.772 

43.19 

148.48 

12.185 

11 

7.068 

3.976 

1.994 

14 

43.98 

153.93 

12.407 

7.854 

4.908 

2.215 

U\ 

44.76 

159.48 

12.628 

r 

8.639 

5.939 

2.437 

14i 

45.56 

165.13 

12.850 

9.424 

7.068 

2.658 

14| 

46.33 

•   170.87 

13.071 

il 

10.21 

8.295 

2.880 

15 

47.12 

176.71 

13.293 

10.99 

9.621 

3.101 

15^ 

47.90 

182.65 

13.514 

!* 

11.78 

11.044 

3.323 

M 

48.69 

188.69 

13.736 

12.56 

12.566 

3.544 

J5f 

49.48 

194.82 

13.958 

4i 

4 

13.35 

14.186 

3.766 

16 

50.26 

201  06 

14.179 

14.13 

15.904 

8.988 

16i 

61.05 

207.39 

14.401 

4| 

14.92 

17.720 

4.209 

16i 

61.83 

213.82 

14.622 

5 

15.70 

19.635 

4.431 

16| 

62.62 

220.35 

14.844 

'4 

16.49 

21.647 

4.652 

17 

53.40 

226.98 

15.065 

17.27 

23.768 

4.874 

17i 

54.19 

233.70 

15.287 

4 

18.06 

25.967 

6.095 

17A 

64.97 

240.52 

15  508 

6* 

18.84 

28.274 

5.317 

17| 

55.76 

247.45 

16.730 

6| 

19.63 

30.679 

5.538 

18 

56.64 

254.46 

15.952 

20.42 

33.183 

5.760 

18i 

67.33 

261.58 

16.173 

21.20 

35.784 

6.982 

18i 

58.11 

268.80 

16.395 

7 

21.99 

38.484 

6.203 

18| 

58.90 

276.11 

16.616 

7i 

22.77 

41.282 

6.425 

19 

69.69 

283.52 

16.838 

7i 

23.56 

44.178 

6.646 

194 

60.47 

291.03 

17.053 

7| 

24.34 

47.173 

6.868 

\^ 

61.26 

298.64 

17.281 

8 

25.13 

50.266 

7.089 

m 

62.04 

306.35 

17.602 

si 

25.91 

63.456 

7.311 

20 

62.83 

314.16 

17.724 

26.70 

66.745 

7.532 

20i 

63.61 

322.06. 

17.946 

?^ 

27.48 

60.131 

7.754 

20i 

64.40 

330.06 

18.167 

28.27 

63.617 

7.976 

20f 

66.18 

338.16 

18.389 

10 

29.05 

67.200 

8.197 

21 

66.97 

346.36 

18.610 

29.84 

70.882 

8.419 

211 

66.75 

354.65 

18.832 

30.63 

74.662 

8.640 

2l| 

67.64 

363.05 

19.053 

31.41 

78.539 

8.862 

21| 

68.32 

371.54 

19.275 

10^ 
lOf 

11 

32.20 

82.516 

9.083 

22 

69.11 

380.13 

19.496 

32.98 

86.590 

9.305 

221 

69. 9U 

388.82 

19.718 

33.77 

90.762 

9.526 

22| 

70.68 

397.60 

19.940 

34.55 

95.033 

9.748 

22| 

71.47 

406.49 

20.161 

,  111 

35.34 

99.402 

9.970 

23 

72.25 

416.47 

20.383 

36.12 

103.86 

'     10.191 

2'6\ 

73.04 

424.55 

20.604 

CIRCLES 


299 


Diam. 

Circum. 

1% 

73.82 

74.61 

24 

75.39 

24|r 

76.18 

2^ 

76.96 

m 

77.75 

25 

78.54 

25} 

79.32 

25i 

80.10 

25^ 

80.89 

26 

81.68 

26} 

82.46 

26} 

83.25 

26f 

84.03 

27 

84.82 

27} 

85 .  60 

27i 

86.39 

27f 

87.17 

28 

87.96 

28} 

88.75 

28* 

89.53 

28f 

90.32 

29 

91.10 

29} 

91.89 

29* 

92.67 

29f 

93.46 

'60 

94.24 

30} 

95.03 

30* 

95.81 

30^ 

96.60 

31 

97.38 

31} 

98.17 

3U 

98.97 

31^ 

99.74 

32 

100.0 

32} 

101.3 

32* 

102.1 

32^ 

102.8 

33 

103.6 

33} 

104.4 

33* 

105.2 

33f 

106. 

34 

106.8 

34} 

107.5 

34* 

108.3 

34f 

109.1 

35 

109.9 

35} 

110.7 

35* 
35| 

111.5 

112.3 

433.73 
443.01 
452.39 
461.86 
471.43 
481.10 
490.87 
500.74 
510.70 
520.77 
630.93 
541.18 
551.54 
562.00 
572.55 
588.20 
593.95 
604.80 
615.75 
626.79 
637.94 
649.18 
660.52 
671.95 
683.49 
695.12 
706.86 
718.69 
730.61 
742.64 
754.76 
766.99 
779.31 
791.73 
804.24 
816.86 
829.57 
842 . 39 
855.30 
868.30 
881.41 
894.61 
907.92 
921.32 
934.82 
948.41 
962.11 
975.90 
989.80 
1003.7 


tiide  of 
equal  square. 


20.826 
21.047 
21.269 
21.491 
21.712 
21.934 
22.155 
22.377 
22.598 
22.820 
23.041 
23.263 
23.485 
23.706 
23.928 
24.149 
24.371 
24.592 
24.814 
25 . 035 
25.257 
25.479 
25.700 
25.922 
26.144 
26.365 
26 . 586 
26.808 
27.029 
27.251 
27.473 
27.694 
27.916 
28.187 
28.359 
28.580 
28.802 
29.023 
29 . 245 
29.467 
29.688 
29.910 
30.131 
30.353 
30.574 
30.796 
31.017 
31.239 
31.461 
31.682 


Side  of 

Diam. 

Circqin. 

Area 

equal  square 

36 

113. 

1017,8 

31.904 

.36} 

113.8 

1032.0 

32.125 

36* 

114.6 

1046.3 

32.347 

36| 

115.4 

1060.7 

32.568 

37 

116.2 

1075.2 

32.790 

37} 

117. 

1089.7 

33.011 

37* 

117.8 

1104.4 

33.233 

37} 

118.6 

1119.2 

33.455 

38 

119.3 

1134.1 

33.676 

38} 

120.1 

1149.0 

33.898 

38| 

120.9 

1164.1 

34.119 

38f 

121.7 

1179.3 

34.341 

39 

122.5 

1194.5 

34.562 

39} 

123.3 

1209.9 

34.784 

39* 
39f 

124. 

1225.4 

35.005 

124.8 

1240.9 

35.227 

40 

125.6 

1256.6 

35.449 

40} 

126.4 

1272.3 

35.670 

40* 

127.2 

1288.2 

35.892 

40| 

128. 

1304.2 

36.113 

41* 

128.8 

1320.2 

36.335 

41} 

129.5 

1336.4 

36.556 

4H 

130.3 

1352.6 

36.778 

41f 

131.1 

1369.0 

36.999 

42 

131.9 

1385.4 

37.221 

42} 

132.7 

1401.9 

h7.443 

4-4 

138.5 

1418.6 

37.664 

42f 

134.3 

1435 . 3 

37.886 

43 

135. 

1452.2 

38.107 

43} 

135.8 

1469.1 

38  329 

43t 

136.6 

1486.1 

38.550 

43j 

137.4 

1503.3 

38.772 

44 

138.2 

1520.5 

38.993 

44} 

139. 

1537.8 

39.215 

44^ 

139.8 

1555.2 

39.437 

44 1 

140.5 

1572.8 

39.658 

45 

141 . 3 

1590.4 

39.880 

45\ 

142.1 

1608.1 

40.101 

45| 

142.9 

1625.9 

40.323 

45f 

143.7 

1643.8 

40.554 

46 

144.5 

1661.9 

40.766 

46} 

145.2 

1680.0 

40.987 

46* 

146. 

1698.2 

41.209 

46| 

146.8 

1716.5 

41.431 

47 

147.6 

1734.9 

41.652 

47} 

148.4 

1753.4 

41.874 

47| 

149.2 

1772.0 

42.095 

47  f 

150. 

1790.7 

42.817 

48 

150.7 

1809.5 

42.538 

48} 

151.5 

1828.4 

42.760 

300 

CIRCLES. 

Side  of 

Side  of               i 

Diam. 

48J 

Clrcum. 

152.3 

Area. 

equal  square. 

Diam. 

Circum. 

Area. 

equal  square. 

1847.4 

42.982 

61 

191.6 

2922.4 

54.059 

48f 

153.1 

1866.5 

43.203 

61J 

192.4 

2946.4 

54.281 

49 

153.9 

1885.7 

43.425 

61^ 

193.2 

2970.5 

64.502 

49i 

154.7 

1905. 

43.646 

61f 

193.9 

2994.7 

54.724 

49* 
49| 

155.5 

1924.4 

43.868 

62 

194.7 

3019.0 

54.946 

156.2 

1943.9 

44.089 

62  J 

195.5 

3043.4 

55.167           ' 

50 

157. 

1963.5 

44.311 

62i 

196.3 

3067.9 

55.389 

50^ 

157.8 

1983.1 

44.532 

62f 

197.1 

3192.5 

55.610 

50^ 

158.6 

2002.9 

44.754 

63 

197.9 

3117.2 

55.832           i 

50f 

159.4 

2022.8 

44.976 

631 

198.7 

3142.0 

56.053          1 

51 

160.2 

2042.8 

45.197 

6H 

199.4 

3166.9 

56.275           ! 

61i 

161. 

2062.9 

45.419 

63f 

200.2 

3191.9 

56.496           1 

5H 

161.7 

2083.0 

45.640 

64 

201. 

3216.9 

56.718 

51f 

162.5 

2103.3 

45 . 862 

641 

201.8 

3242.1 

56.940 

•; 

52 

163.3 

2123.7 

46.083 

6H 

202.6 

3267.4 

57.161 

521 

164.1 

2144.1 

46.305 

64f 

203.4 

3292.8 

57.383 

52| 

164.9 

2164.7 

46.526 

65 

204.2 

3318.3 

57.604           1 

52f 

165.7 

2185.4 

46.748 

651 

204.9 

3343.8 

57.826 

63 

166.5 

2206.1 

46.970 

65A 

205.7 

3369.5 

58.047           1 

531 

167.2 

2227.0 

47.191 

65f 

206.5 

3396.3 

58.269 

53A 

168. 

2248.0 

47.413 

66 

207.3 

3421.2 

58.490 

53| 

168.8 

2269.0 

47.634 

66} 

208.1 

3447.1 

58.712 

54 

169.6 

2290.2 

47.856 

66* 

208.9 

3473.2 

58.934 

54J 

170.4 

2311.4 

48.077 

66| 

209.7 

3499.3 

59.155 

54* 

54f 

171.2 

2332.8 

48.299 

67 

210.4 

3525 . 6 

59.377 

172. 

2354.2 

48.520 

67| 

211.2 

3552 . 0 

59.598 

55 

172.7 

2375.8 

48.742 

67! 

212. 

3578.4 

59.820 

554 

173.5 

2397.4 

48.964 

67f 

212.8 

3605.0 

60.041 

55J 

174.3 

2419.2 

49.185 

68 

213.6 

3631 . 6 

60.263 

55! 

175.1 

2441.0 

49.407 

681 

214.4 

3658.4 

60.484 

56 

175.9 

2463.0 

49.628 

68| 

215.1 

3685.2 

60.706 

'■ 

56i 

176.7 

2485.0 

49.850 

68f 

2U.9 

3712.2 

60.928 

56^ 

177.5 

2507.1 

50.071 

69 

216.7 

3739.2 

61.149 

56f 

178.2 

2529.4 

50.293 

691 

217.5 

3766.4 

61.371 

57 

179. 

U551.7 

50.514 

69J 

218.3 

3793.6 

61.592 

57^ 

179.8 

2574.1 

50.736 

69f 

219.1 

3821.0 

61.814 

57i 
57f 

180.6 

2596.7 

50.9.58 

70 

219.9 

3848.4 

62.035 

181.4 

2619.3 

51.179 

70| 

220.6 

3875 . 9 

62.257 

58 

182 . 2 

2642.0 

51.401 

70| 

221.4 

3903.6 

62.478 

681 

182.9 

2664.9 

51.622 

70| 

222.2 

3931.3 

62.700 

58,. 
58| 

183.7 

2687.8 

51.844 

71* 

223. 

3959.2 

62.922 

184.5 

2710.8 

62.065 

71^ 

223.8 

3987.1 

63.143 

59* 

185.3 

2733.9 

52.287 

'^4 

224.6 

4015.1 

63.365 

69i 

186.1 

2757.1 

52.608 

71-1 

225.4 

4043  2 

63.586 

' 

69 

186.9 

2780.5 

52.730 

72 

226.1 

4071.5 

63.808 

69 

187.7 

2803.9 

52.952 

721 

226.9 

4099.8 

64.029 

; 

60 

188.4 

2827.4 

63.173 

72J 

227.7 

4128.2 

64.251 

; 

60i 

189.2 

2851.0 

53.395 

72f 

228  5 

4156.7 

64.473 

60A 
60| 

190. 

2874.7 

53.616 

73 

229.3 

4185.3 

64.694 

190.8 

2898.6 

53.838 

73i 

230.1 

4214.1 

64.916 

1 

CIRCLES. 

301 

Side  of 

Side  of 

Diam. 
73i 

Circum. 
230.9 

Area. 
4242.9 

equal  square. 

Diam. 
86 

Circum. 

Area. 

equal  square. 

65.137 

270.1 

5808.8 

76.215 

73| 

231.6 

4271.8 

65.359 

86J 

270.9 

5842.6 

76.437 

74 

232.4 

4300.8 

65.580 

86^ 

271.7 

5876.6 

76.658 

74| 

233.2 

4329.9 

65.802 

86| 

272.5 

5910.5 

76.880 

74i 

234. 

4359.1 

66.023 

87' 

273.3 

5944.6 

77.101 

in 

75 

234.8 

4388.4 

66.245 

87^ 

274.1 

5978.9 

77.323 

235.6 

4417.8 

66.467 

87| 

274.8 

6013.2 

77.544 

75^ 
75| 

236.4 

4447.3 

66.688 

87f 

275.6 

6047.6 

77.766 

I 

237.1 

4476.9 

66.910 

88 

276.4 

6082.1 

77.987 

75f 

237.9 

4506.6 

67.191 

88^ 

277.2 

6116.7 

78.209 

'■■ 

76 

238.7 

4536.4 

67.353 

88J 
88f 

278. 

6151.4 

78.431 

: 

76^ 
76| 

239.5 

4566.3 

67.574 

278.8 

6186.2 

78.652 

240.3 

4596.3 

67.796 

89 

279.6 

6221.1 

78.874 

< 

76| 

241.1 

4626.4 

68.017 

89J- 

280.3 

6256.1 

79.095 

77 

241.9 

4656.6 

68.239 

89* 

281.1 

6291.2 

79.317 

^ 

771 

242.6 

4686.9 

68.461 

89f 

281.9 

6326.4 

79.538 

77i 

77| 

243.4 

4717.3 

68.682 

90 

282.7 

6361.7 

79.760 

■ 

244.2 

4747.7 

68.904 

901 

283.5 

6397 . 1 

79.981 

^ 

78 

245. 

4778.3 

69.125 

90^ 

284.3 

6432.6 

80.203 

781 

245.8 

4809.0 

69.347 

904 

285.1 

6468.2 

80.425 

78i 

246.6 

4839.8 

69.568 

91 

285.8 

6503.8 

80.646 

78f 
79 

247.4 

4870.7 

69.790 

91J 

286.6 

6539.6 

80.868 

.1; 

248.1 

4901 . 6 

70.011 

9U 

287.4 

6575.6 

81.089 

J 

791 

248.9 

4932.7 

70.233 

9  If 

288.2 

6611.5 

81.311 

f 

79i 

249.7 

4963.9 

70.455 

92 

289. 

6647.6 

81.532 

79f 

250.5 

4995.1 

70.676 

921 

289.8 

6683.8 

81.754 

80 

251.3 

5026.5 

70.898 

92^ 

290.5 

6720.0 

81.975 

801 

252.1 

6058.0 

71.119 

92f 

291.3 

6756.4 

82.197 

80A 

252.8 

5089.5 

71.341 

93 

292.1 

6792.9 

82.419 

80f 

253.6 

5121.2 

71.562 

931 

292.9 

6829.4 

82.640 

81 

254.4 

5158.0 

71.784 

93^ 

293.7 

6866.1 

82.862 

8U 

255.2 

5184.8 

72.005 

93| 

294.5 

6902.9 

83.083 

84 

256. 

5216.8 

72.227 

94 

295.3 

6939.7 

83.305 

81f 

82 

256.8 

5248.8 

72.449 

941 

296. 

6776.7 

83.526 

257.6 

5281.0 

72.670 

94^ 

94f 

296.8 

7013.8 

83.748 

\ 

82i 

258.3 

5313.2 

72.892 

297.6 

7050.9 

83.970 

\ 

82i 

25s9.1 

5345.6 

73.113 

95 

298.4 

7088.2 

84.191 

s 

82f 

259.9 

6378.0 

73.335 

951 

299.2 

7122.5 

84.413 

■1 

83 

260.7 

5410.6 

73.566 

95^ 

300. 

7163.0 

84.634 

j 

831 

261.5 

5443.2 

73.778 

95f 

300.8 

7200.5 

84.856 

83* 

262.3 

5476.0 

73.999 

96 

301.5 

7238.2 

85.077 

; 

83i 

263.1 

5508.8 

74.221 

961 

302.2 

7275.9 

85.299 

;■ 

84^ 

263.8 

5541.7 

74.443 

96^ 

303.1 

7313.8 

85.520 

841 

264.6 

5574.8 

74.664 

96| 

303.9 

7351.7 

85.742 

84* 

265.4 

5607.9 

74.886 

97 

304.7 

7389.8 

85.964 

m 

266.2 

5641.1 

75.107 

971 

305.5 

7427.9 

86.185 

85 

267. 

5674.5 

75.329        97| 

306.3 

7466.2 

86.407 

851 

267.8 

5707.9 

75.550        97f 

307. 

7504.5 

86.628 

85^ 

268.6 

5741.4 

75.772        98 

307.8 

7542.9 

86 . 850 

85| 

269.3 

5775.0 

75.993       98^ 

308.6 

7581.6 

87.071 

. 

302 


CIRCLES. 


Side  of 

Side  of 

Diam. 

Circum. 

Area. 

equal  square. 

Diam. 

Circum. 

Area. 

equal  square. 

98;^ 

309.4 

7620.1 

87.293 

on 

312.5 

7775.6 

88.179 

98a 

310.2 

7658.8 

87.514 

99f 

313.3 

7814.7 

88.401 

99 

311. 

7697.7 

87.736 

100 

314.1 

7853.9 

88.622 

99i 

311.8 

7736.6 

87.958 

To  find^  hy  means  of  the  Tahle^  the  square  or  circle  that 
will  contain  the  area  of  a  hoard  or  surface  of  given  length 
am^d  width. 

Rule. — Find  the  area  of  the  board  or  surface  by  multi- 
plying its  width  by  its  length,  and  in  the  columns  opposite 
the  area  thus  found,  headed  respectively  "  Diam.^''  "  Cir- 
m^m.,"  and  "  Side  of  Equal  Square^''  will  be  found  the 
dimensions  of  the  circle  and  square  that  contains  the  area. 

Example. — What  is  the  side  of  a  square,  and  what  the 
diameter  and  circumference  of  a  circle,  that  will  contain  the 
same  area  as  a  board  that  is  22  inches  wide  by  12  feet  long  \ 

Solution. — 22  inches,  width,  x  144  inches,  length,  =  3168 
square  inches,  area  of  board :  Then,  in  the  table,  opposite 
the  area  of  3166.9  (the  nearest  number  to  3168)  under  the 
columns  headed  respectively  "Diam.,"  "Circum.,"  and 
"Side  of  Equal  Square,"  will  be  found  63^  inches,  diame- 
ter, 109.4  inches,  circumference,  and  56.275  inches,  side  of 
square.     Ans. 


SQUAEES,  CUBES,  AND  KOOTS. 

Table  of  Sq^cares,  Cubes,  and  Square  and  Cube  Boots,  of 
all  numbers  from  1  to  1000. 


No. 

Square, 

Cube. 

1 

1 

1 

2 

4 

8 

3 

9 

27 

4 

6 

64 

6 

26 

125 

6 

36 

216 

7 

49 

343 

h 

64 

612 

9 

81 

729 

10 

100 

1000 

n 

121 

1331 

12 

144 

1728 

13 

169 

2197 

14 

196 

2744 

15 

225 

3375 

Ifi 

256 

4096 

17 

289 

4913 

18 

324 

5832 

19 

361 

6859 

20 

400 

8000 

21 

441 

9261 

22 

484 

10648 

23 

529 

12167 

24 

576 

13824 

25 

626 

15626 

26 

676 

17576 

27 

729 

19683 

2R 

784 

21952 

29 

841 

24389 

30 

900 

27000 

31 

961 

29791 

32 

1024 

32768 

33 

1089 

35937 

34 

1156 

39304 

35 

1226 

42875 

3fi 

1296 

46656 

37 

1369 

60653 

38 

1444 

64872 

39 

1621 

69319 

40 

1600 

64000 

41 

1681 

68921 

42 

1764 

74088 

43 

1849 

79507 

44 

1936 

85184 

45 

2025 

91126 

46 

2116 

97336 

47 

2209 

103823 

48 

2304 

110592 

49 

2401 

117649 

60 

2600 

125000 

51 

2601 

132651 

62 

270* 

140608 

63 

28091 

148877 

Sq.  Root,  Cu.  Root.  No.  Square 


1.414213 

1.73;J050 

2. 

2. 

2. 

2.645751 

2.828427 

3. 

3.162277 

3.316624 

3.464101 

3.605551 

3.741657 

3.872983 

4 

4.123105 

4.242640 

4. 

4.472136 

4.682575 

4.690415 

4.7958.S1 

4.898979 

5. 

6.099019 

6.196152 

5.291502 

6.385164 

6.477225 

6.667764 

6.656854 

5.744562 

6.830951 

6.916079 

6. 

6.082762 

6.164414 

6.244998 

6.324555 

6.403124 

6.480740 

6.657438 

6.633249 


6.782330 

6.865654 

6.928203 

7. 

7.071067 

7.141428 

7.211102 

7.280109 


1. 

1.259921 

1.442250 

1.587401 

1.709976 

1.817121 

1.912933 

2. 

2.080084 

2.154435 

2.223980 

2.289428 

2.351336 

2.410142 

2.466212 

2.519842 

2.671282 

2.620741 

2.668402 

2.714418 

2.758923 

2.802039 

2.843867 

2.884499 

2.924018 

2.962496 

3. 

3.036589 

3.072317 

3.107232 

3.141381 

3.174802 

3.207534 

3.239612 

3.271066 

3.301927 

3.332222 

3.361975 

3.391211 

3.419952 

3.448217 

3.476027 

3.503398 

3.530348 

3.556893 

3.583048 

3.608826 

3.634241 


3.684031 
3.708430 
3.732511 
3.756286 


67 


Cube. 


2916 
3025 
3136 
3249 
3364 
3481 
3600 
3721 
3844 
3969 
4096 
4226 
4350 
4489 
4624 
4761 
4900 
5041 
6184 
6329 
5476 
6625 
6776 
6929 
6084 
6241 
6400 
6561 
6724 
6889 
7056 
7225 
7396 
7569 
7744 
7921 
8100 
8281 


9026 

9216 

9409 

9604 

9801 

10000 

10201 

10404 

10609 

10816 

11026 

11236 


167464 
166375 
175616 
186193 
195112 
205379 
216000 
226981 


Sq.  Root.  Cu.  Root. 


250047 
262144 
274626 
287496 
300763 
314432 
328509 
343000 
357911 
373248 
389017 
405224 
421875 
438976 
456633 
474652 


612000 
531441 
551368 
571787 
692704 
614125 


668603 
681472 


729000 
753571 
778688 
804357 


857375 
884736 
912673 
941192 
970299 
1000000 
1030301 
1061208 
1092727 
1124864 
1157625 
1191016 


7  348469 

7.416198 

7.483314 

7.549834 

7.615773 

7.681146 

7.745966 

7.810249 

7.87400*7 

7.937253 

8. 

8.062257 

8.124038 

8.186362 

8.246211 

8.306623 

8.366600 

8.426149 

8.485281 

8.544003 

8.602325 

8.660264 

8.717797 

8.774964 

8.831760 

8.888194 

8.944271 

9. 

9.055385 

9.110433 

9.165151 

9.219544 

9.273618 

9.327379 


9.486833 
9.539392 
9.591663 


9.746794 

9.797969 

9.84S857 

9.899494 

9.949874 

10. 

10.049875 

10.099504 

10.148891 

10.198039 

10.246960 

10.295630 


3.779763 
3.802953 
3.825862 
3.848501 
3.870877 


3.914867 

3.936497 

3.957892 

3.979067 

4. 

4.020726 

4.041240 

4.061648 

4.081686 

4.101566 

4.121285 

4.140818 

4.160168 

4.179339 

4.198336 

4.217163 

4,236824 

4.254321 

4  272669 

4.290841 

4.308870 

4.326749 

4.344481 

4.362071 

4.379519 

4.396830 

3.414005 

4.431047 

4.447960 

4.464745 

4.481401 

4.497942 

4.614357 

4.530655 

4.546836 

4.562903 

4.677857 

4.594701 

4.610436 

4.626065 

4.641589 

4.667010 

4.672330 

4.687548 

4.702669 

4.717694 

4.732624 


* 

304: 

.SQUARES,  CUBES, 

ANt) 

ROOTS. 

No. 

107 

-Square 

Cube. 

Sq.  Root, 

Cu.  Root. 

No. 
172 

Square. 

Cube. 

.^q .  Koot. 

Cu.  Koot. 

11449 

1225043 

10.344080 

4.747459 

29584 

5088448 

13.114877 

5.561298 

108 

11*564 

1259712 

10.392304 

4.762203 

173 

29929 

5177717 

13.152946 

5.572054 

109 

11881 

1295U29 

10.440306 

3.776856 

174 

30276 

5268024 

13.190906 

5.582770 

110 

12100 

1331000 

10.488088 

4.791420 

175 

30625 

5359375 

13.228756 

5.593445 

111 

12321 

1367631 

10.535653 

4.805896 

176 

30976 

5451776 

13  266499 

6.  (=04079 

112 

12544 

1404928 

10.583005 

4.820284 

177 

31329 

5545233 

13.304134 

5.614673 

113 

12769 

1442897 

10.630145 

4.834588 

178 

31«84 

5639752 

13.341664 

5.625226 

114 

12996 

1481544 

10.677078 

4.848808 

179 

32  41 

6735839 

13.379088 

6.635741 

115 

13225 

1520875 

10.723805 

4.862944 

180 

32400 

5832000 

13.416407 

6.646216 

116 

13456 

1560896 

10.770329 

4.876999 

181 

32761 

592974] 

13.453624 

5.656652 

117 

13689 

1601613 

10.816653 

4.890973 

182 

33124 

6028568 

13.490737 

6.667051 

118 

13924 

1643032 

10.862780 

4.904868 

183 

3  489 

6128487 

13  627749 

5.677411 

119 

14161 

1685159 

10.908712 

4.918685 

1^4 

33856 

6229504 

13.564660 

5.687734 

120 

14400 

1728000 

10.954451 

4.932424 

185 

34^25 

6331625 

13.601470 

6.698019 

121 

14641 

1771561 

11 

4.946088 

186 

34596 

6434856 

13.638181 

5.708267 

122 

14884 

1815848 

11.045361 

4.959675 

187 

34969 

6539203 

13.674794 

5.718479 

123 

15129 

1860867 

11.090536 

4.973190 

1S8 

35344 

6644672 

13.711309 

5.728654 

124 

15376 

1906624 

11.135528 

4  986631 

189 

35721 

6751269 

13.747:27 

5.738794 

125 

15625 

1953125 

11.180339 

5. 

190 

36100 

6859000 

13.784048 

5.748897 

126 

15876 

2000376 

11.224972 

6.013298 

191 

36481 

6967871 

13.820275 

5.758965 

127 

16129 

2048383 

11,269427 

5.026526 

192 

36864 

7077888 

13.8564u6 

5.768998 

128 

16384 

2097152 

11.313708 

5.039684 

193 

37249 

7189057 

13.892444 

6.778996 

129 

16641 

2146H89 

11.357816 

5,052774 

194 

37636 

7301384 

13.928388 

5.788960 

130 

16900 

2197000 

11  401754 

5.065797 

195 

38(;25 

7414875 

13.964240 

5.798890 

131 

1716! 

2248091 

11.445522 

5.078753 

196 

38416 

7529536 

14. 

5,808786 

132 

17424 

2299968 

11.489125 

5.091643 

197 

38809 

7645373 

I4.03b668 

5.818648 

133 

17689 

2352637 

11.532562 

5.104469 

198 

39204 

7762392 

14.071247 

5.828476 

134 

17956 

2406104 

11.575836 

5.117230 

199 

39601 

7880599 

14.106736 

6.838272 

135 

18225 

2460373 

11.618950 

5.129928 

200 

40000 

8OOCO00 

14.142135 

5.848035 

136 

18496 

2515456 

11.661903 

5.142563 

201 

40401 

812060! 

14.177446 

5.857766 

137 

18769 

2571353 

11,704699 

5.155137 

202 

40804 

8242408 

14.212670 

5.867464 

138 

19044 

2628072 

11.747344 

5.167649 

203 

41209 

8365427 

14.247806 

5.877130 

139 

19321 

2685619 

11.789826 

5.180101 

204 

41616 

8489664 

14.282856 

5.886765 

140 

19600 

2744000 

11.832159 

5.192494 

205 

42025 

8615125 

14.317821 

6.896368 

141 

19881 

2803221 

11  874342 

6.204828 

2(J6 

42436 

8741816 

14.352700 

5.906941 

142 

20164 

2863288 

11.916375 

5.217103 

207 

42849 

8869743 

14.387494 

6.915481 

143 

20449 

2924-Z07 

11.958260 

5.229321 

208 

43264 

8998912 

14.422205 

5.924991 

144 

20736 

2985984 

12. 

5.241482 

209 

43681 

9123329 

14.456832 

5.934473 

145 

21025 

3048625 

12.041594 

5.253588 

210 

44100 

9261000 

14.491376 

6.943911 

146 

21316 

3112136 

12.083046 

5.265637 

211 

44521 

9393931 

14.525839 

6. 953341 

147 

21609 

3176523 

12.124355 

5.277632 

212 

44944 

9528128 

14.560219 

5.962731 

148 

21904 

3241792 

12.165525 

5.289572 

213 

45369 

9663597 

14.594519 

6.972091 

149 

22201 

3307949 

12.206555 

5.301459 

214 

45796 

9800344 

14.628738 

6.981426 

150 

22500 

3375000 

12.247448 

5.313293 

215 

46225 

9938375 

14,662878 

6.990727 

151 

22801 

3442951 

12  288205 

5.325074 

216 

46656 

10077696 

14.696938 

6. 

152 

23104 

3511808 

12.328828 

5.336803 

217 

47089 

10218313 

14.730919 

6.009244 

153 

23409 

3581577 

12.369316 

5.348481 

218 

47624 

10360232 

14.764823 

6.018463 

154 

23716 

3652264 

12.409673 

5.360108 

219 

47961 

10503459 

14.798648 

6.027660 

155 

24025 

3723875 

12.449899 

5.371685 

220 

48400 

10648000 

14.832397 

6. 036811 

156 

24336 

3796416 

12  489996 

5.383231 

221 

48841 

10793861 

14.866068 

6.045943 

157 

24649 

3869893 

12.529964 

5.394690 

222 

49284 

10941048 

14.899664 

6.055048 

158 

24964 

3944312 

12.569805 

5.406120 

223 

49729 

11089567 

14.933184 

6.064126 

159 

25281 

4019679 

12.609520 

5.417501 

224 

:C176 

11239424 

14.966629 

6.073177 

160 

2o600 

4096000 

12.649110 

5.428835 

225 

50625 

11390625 

15. 

6.082201 

161 

25921 

4173281 

12.688577 

5.440122 

226 

51076 

11543176 

16.033296 

6.091199 

)62 

26244 

425152S 

12.727922 

5  451362 

227 

61529 

11697083 

15.066519 

6.100170 

163 

26569 

4330747 

12.767145 

5.462556 

228 

51984 

11852352 

15.099668 

6.109115 

164 

26896 

4410944 

12.806248 

5.473703 

229 

52441 

12008989 

15.132746 

6.118032 

165 

27225 

4492125 

12.845232 

5.484806 
5.495865 

230 

52900 

12167C0U 

15.165750 

6.126925 

166 

27556 

4574296 

12.884098 

231 

53361 

12326391 

15.198684 

6.135792 

167 

27889 

4757463 

12.922848 

5.506879 

232 

53824 

12487168 

15.231546 

6.114634 

168 

28224 

4741632 

12.961481 

5.517848 

233 

64289 

12649337 

15.264337 

6.153449 

169 

28561 

4826809 

13. 

6.528775 

234 

54756 

12812904 

15.297058 

6.162239 

170 

28900 

4913000 

13.038404 

5.539658 

235 

55225 

12977875 

15.329709 

6.171005 

171 

29241 

5000211  13.076696 

5.550499 

236 

55690 

13144256 

15.362291 

6.179747 

SQUARES,    CUBES,    AND    ROOTS. 


305 


No.  (Square. 


239 
2-10 
241 
242 
243 
244 
246 
246 
247 
248 
249 
250 
251 
252 
253 
254 
255 
256 
257 
258 
259 
260 
261 
262 
263 
264 
265 
266 
267 
268 
269 
270 
271 
272 
273 

t:74 

275 
276 
277 
278 
279 
280 
281 
282 
283 
28"! 
285 


289 
290 
291 
292 
293 
294 
295 
296 
297 
298 
299 


56169 

56644 

57121 

57600 

58081 

58564 

59049 

59536 

60025 

60516 

61009 

61504 

62001 

62500 

63C01 

63504 

64009 

6451 

65025 

65fi36 


66564 
67081 
67600 
68121 
68644 
69169 


70225 
70757 
71289 
718^4 
72361 
72900 
73441 
73984 
74529 
75076 
75625 
76176 
76729 
77284 
77841 
78400 
78961 
79524 


Cube. 


80656 
81225 
81796 
82369 
82944 
83521 
84100 
84681 
85264 
85849 
86436 
87025 
87616 
88209 
88804 
89401 
90(00 


13312053 

13481272 

13661919 

13824000 

13997521 

14172488 

14348907 

14526784 

14706125 

14886936 

15069223 

15252992 

16438249 

15625000 

15813251 

16003008 

16194277 

16387064 

16581375 

16777216 

16974593 

17173512 

17373979 

1757600 

17779581 

17984728 

18191447 

18399744 

18609625 

18821096 

19034163 

19248832 

19465109 

196830L0 

1990251 

20123648 

20346417 

20570824 

20796875 

21024576 

2126393K 

21484952 

21717639 

21952000 

22188041 

22425768 

22665187 

22906301 

231491-25 

23393656 

23639903 

23887872 

24137569 

24389000 

24642171 

24897088 

25153757 

25412184 

25672375 

25934336 

2619807a 

26463592 

26730899 

27000000 

27270901 


Sq.  Root,  Cu.  Root. 


15.394804 

15.42724!i 

15  459624 

15.491933 

15.524174 

15.556349 

15.588457 

15.620499 

15.652475 

15.684387 

15.716233 

15.748015 

15.779733 

15.811388 

15.842979 

15.87450 

15.905973 

15.937377 

15.968719 

16 

16.031219 

16.062378 

16.093476 

16.124515 

16.155494 

16.186414 

16.217274 

16.248076 

16.27882 

16.309506 

16.340i34 

16.370705 

16.401219 

16.431676 

16.46207: 

16.492422 

16.522711 

16.552945 

16.583124 

16.613247 

16.643317 

16.673332 

16.703293 

16.733200 

16.763054 

16.792855 

16.822603 

16.852299 

16.881943 

16.911534 

16.941074 

16.970562 

17. 

17.029386 

17.058722 

17.08800' 

17.117242 

17.146428 

17.175564 

17.204650 

17. -'3J 

17.262676 

17.291616 

17.3205 

17.349361 


6.188463 
6.197154 
6.205821 
6.214464 
6.223083 
6.231678 
6.240251 
6.248800 
6.257324 
6.265826 
6.274304 
6.i82760 
6.291194 
6.299f04 
6.307992 
6.316359 
6.324704 
6.333025 
6.3413-.^5 
6.349602 
6.357859 


6.374310 
6.3825C4 
6.390676 
6.398827 
6.406958 
6.415068 
6.423157 
6.431226 
6.439275 
6.44730.'! 
6.455314 
6.463304 
6.471274 
6.479224 
6.487153 
6.495064 
6.602956 
6.610829 
6.518684 
6  826519 
6.534335 
6.542132 
6.549911 
6.857672 
6.665415 
6.573139 
6.580844 
6.588531 
6.596202 
6.603854 
6.611488 
6.619106 
6.626705 
6.634287 
6.641851 
6.649399 
6.656930 
6.664443 
6.6T1940 
6.679419 
6.686S82 


No.  Square. 


6.701768 


331 

332 

333 

334 

336 

336 

33 

33 

33fe 

340 

34' 

342 

343 

344 

345 

346 

347 

348 

349 

350 

351 

35i 

3?>o 

354 

35.^ 

356 

357 

35>- 

359 

S60 


91204 
91809 
92416 
93026 
93636 
94249 


96481 
96100 
96721 
97344 
97969 


99225 
99856 
100489 
101124 
101761 
102400 
103042 
103684 
104329 
104976 
l056-'5 
106276 
106929 
107584 
108241 
108900 
109561 
110224 
110889 
111556 
112225 
112896 
113669 
114244 
114921 
115600 
116281 
116964 
117649 
118336 
11902f) 
119716 
120409 
121104 
121801 
122500 
123201 
123904 
124609 
125316 
126025 
126736 
12?449 
128164 
128881 
129600 
130321 
131044 
131 
132496 
133225 
133956 


Cube. 


27643608 

27818127 

28094464 

2-372625 

28662616 

28934440 

29218112 

29503629 

29791000 

30080231 

30371328 

30664297 

30959144 

31255876 

31554496 

318550 

32157432 

32461759 

32768f00 

3307M61 

33386248 


34012224 
34328125 
34645976 
34965783 
36287562 
35611289 
35937000 
36264691 


36926037 

37259704 

37698375 

879330; 

38272753 

38614472 

38968219 

39304000 

39651821 

40001688 

40363607 

40707684 

41063625 

41421736 

41781923 

42144192 

42508549 

42875000 

43243651 

43614208 

439869 

44361864 

44738875 

45118016 

45499293 

45882712 

46268279 

46656000 

47046881 

47437928 

47832147 

48228544 

48627126 

49027896 


Sq.  Root.  Cu.  Root. 


17.378147 

17.406896 

17.435595 

17.464249 

17.492855 

17.521415 

17.549928 

17.678396 

17.606816 

17.635192 

17.663621 

17.691806 

17.720045 

17.748239 

17.776388 

17.804 

17.832554 

17.860571 

17.888543 

17.916472 

17.944358 

17.972200 

18. 

18.027756 

18.055470 

18.083141 

18.110770 

18.138357 

18.165902 

18.193406 

18.220867 

18.248287 

18.275666 

18  30300n 

18.330302 

18.377559 

18.384776 

18.411952 

18.439088 

18.466185 

18.493242 

18.620-.59 

18.547237 

18.574175 

18.601075 

18.627936 

18.654758 

18.681541 

18.70? 

18.734994 

18.761663 

18.788294 

18.814887 

18.841443 

18.867962 

18.894443 

18.92088 

18.947295 

18.973666 

19. 

19.026297 

19.05'^558 

19.078784 

19.104973 

19.131126 


6.709172 

6.716569 

6.723850 

9.731316 

6.738665 

6.745997 

6.753313 

6.760614 

6.767899 

6.775168 

6.782422 

6.789661 

6.796884 

6.804091 

6.811284 

6  818461 

6.825624 

6.832771 

6.83990:i 

6.847021 

6.8541V4 

6.86-211 

6.868284 

6.876343 

6.882388 

6  88P4I9 

6.896435 

6.903436 

6. 91 04-.  3 

6.917396 

6.924355 

6.9313C0 

6.938232 

6.945449 

6.952053 

6.958943 

6.965819 

6.972682 

6.979632 

6.986369 

6.993491 

7. 

7.006796 

7.013579 

7.020349 

7. 0271 06 

7.033850 

7.040581 

7.047208 

7.0?4003 

7.060696 

7.067376 

7.074043 

7.080698 

7.087341 

7.093970 

7.100588 

7.107193 

7.113786 

7.12C367 

7.126935 

7.133492 

7.140037 

7.146669 

7.153090 


306 


SQUAEES,    CUBES,    AND   ROOTS. 


No.   Square. 


367 
368 
369 
370 
371 
372 
373 
374 
375 
376 
377 
378 
379 
380 
381 
382 
383 
384 
385 
386 
387 
388 
389 
390 
391 
392 
393 
394 
395 
396 


399 
400 
401 
402 
403 
404 
405 
406 
407 
408 
409 
410 
411 
412 
413 
414 
415 
416 
417 
418 
419 
4.0 
421 
422 
423 
424 
425 
426 
427 
428 
429 
480 
.431 


134689 
335424 
136161 


137641 

138384 

139129 

139876 

140625 

141376 

142129 

142884 

143641 

144400 

145161 

145924 

146689 

147456 

148225 

148996 

149769 

150544 

151321 

152100 

152881 

153664 

154449 

155236 

156025 

156816 

157609 

158404 

159201 

160000 

160 

161604 

162409 

1632:6 

164025 

164836 

165649 

166464 

167281 

168100 

168921 

169744 

170569 

171396 

172225 

173056 

173889 

174724 

175561 

176400 

177241 

Hi 

178929 

179776 

180625 

181476 

18232! 

183184 

184041 

184900 

185761 


Cube. 


49430863 


50243409 
60653000 
51064811 
51478848 
61895117 
52313624 
52734375 
58157376 
63582633 
64010162 
64439939 
64872000 
65306341 
55742968 
66181887 
66623104 
67066625 
67512466 
67960603 
68411072 


69319000 
69776471 


60698467 
61162984 
61629876 


62570773 
63044792 
63521199 
64000000 
64481201 
6496480S 
65450827 
65939264 
66430125 
66923416 
67419143 
67911312 
68417929 
68921000 
69426531 


Sq,  Root,  Cu.  Root 


70444997 
70957944 
71473375 
71991296 
72f>1171c 
730346:S2 
73560059 
7408800(i 
74618461 
75151448 
75686967 
76226024 
7<)765625 
77308776 
77854483 
7840275-^ 
78953589 
79507000 
80062991 


19.157244 
19.18332e 
19. 20937-.^ 
19.235384 
19.261360 
19.287301 
19.313207 
19.339079 
19.364916 
19.390719 
19.416487 
19.442222 
19.467922 
19.493588 
19.519221 
19.644820 
19.570385 
19.595917 
19.62141^ 
19.646882 
19.672315 
19.697715 
19.723082 
19.748417 
19.773719 
19.79S989 
19.824227 
19.849432 
19.874606 
19.899748 

19  924858 
19.949937 
19.974984 
20. 
20.024984 
20.049937 
20.074859 
20.099751 
20.124611 
20.149441 
20.174241 
20.199009 
20.223748 
20.248456 
20.273134 
20.297783 
20.322401 
20.3469!i9 
20.37154h 
20.39607*5 
20.420577 
20.445048 
20.469489 
20.493901 
20.518284 
20.542638 
20.566963 

20  591260 
20.615528 
20.639767 
20.663978 
20.688160 
20.712315 
20.736441 
20.760539 


7.159599 

7.16C095 

7.172680 

7.179064 

185516 

191966 

198405 

204832 

211247 

217652 

224045 

230427 

236797 

243156 

7.249504 

7.255841 

7.262167 


.268482 
.274786 
.281079 
.287362 


7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7.306143 

7.312383 

7.318611 

7.324829 

7.331037 


337234 

343420 

349596 

355762 

361917 

368063 

374198 

380322 

386437 

7.392542 

7.398636 

7.404720 

7.410794 


No.  Square. 


416859 

422914 

428958 

434993 

441018 

447033 

453039 

7.459036 

7.465022 

7.47^999 

7.476966 

7.482924 

7.488872 

7.494810 

7.500740 


7.512571 
7.518473 
7.524365 
7.530248 
7.536121 
7.541986 
7.547841 
7.653688 


432 
433 
434 
435 
436 
437 
438 
439 
440 
441 
442 
44o 
444 
44b 
446 
447 
448 
449 
450 
451 
452 
453 
454 
45£ 
456 
457 
45e 
459 
460 
461 
462 
46S 
464 
465 
466 
467 
468 
469 
470 
471 
472 

47; 

474 

475 

476 

477 

478 

4' 

480 

481 

482 

483 

484 

485 

48t: 

487 

488 

48fe 

490 

491 

492 

493 

494 

495 

496 


186624 
187489 
188356 
189226 
190096 


191844 

192721 

193600 

194481 

195364 

19^249 

197136 

19802^ 

198916 

199809 

200704 

201601 

202500 

20340 

204304 

2052  9 

206106 

207(125 

20793 

208849 

209764 

210681 

211600 

2125-/ 1 

213444 

214369 

215296 

216225 

217156 

218089 

219024 

219961 

220900 

221841 

222784 

223729 

224676 

225625 

226576 

227529 

2284^4 

229441 

230400 

231361 

232324 

233289 

234256 

235225 

236196 

23  n 

238144 

239121 

24010f 

241081 

242064 

243049 

244036 

24502=i 

2460i6 


Cube. 


80621568 
8  1^2737 
8174650 1 
8--^312875 
82881856 
83453453 
84027672 
84604519 
85184000 
86766121 


86938307 
87528384 
88121125 
88716536 
89314623 
89915392 
90518849 
91125000 
91733851 
92345408 
929.=.9677 
93576664 
94196375 
94818816 
95443993 
96071912 
96702579 
97336000 
97972181 
98611128 
99-252847 
99897344 
100544625 
101194696 
101847563 
102503232 
103161709 
103823n0O 
104487111 
105154048 
105823817 
106496424 
107171875 
107850176 
108531333 
109215352 
10990:^239 
110592000 
111284641 
111980168 
112678587 
113379904 
114084125 
114791256 
11550^303 
116214272 
116930 
117649000 
118370771 
119095488 
119823157 
120553784 
12 '287375 
1:^2023936 


Sq.  Root.(  Cu.  Root. 


20  7846"  9 
0.808651 
20.832666 
20.856653 
20.880613 
20 . 804545 
20.928449 
20.962326 
20.976i77 
21. 

21.023796 
21.047565 
21.071307 
21.095025 
2l.ll87r- 
21.142374 
2l.l»i6010 
21.189620 
21. 213'.  03 
21.236760 
21 . 260291 
21.283796 
21.30727fc 
•21 .  330729 
21.354166 
21.377558 
21.400934 
21. 424. 85 
21.447610 
21.470910 
21.494186 
21.617434 
21.540659 
21.563858 
21.587(33 
21.C10182 
21.633307 
n . 656407 
21.679483 
21 . 702634 
21.725561 
21.748563 
21.77i641 
21 . 794494 
21 . 817424 
21  840c29 
21.863211 
21.88606!" 
21 . 908902 
21.931712 
21.964498 
21.977261 
22. 

22.022716 
r2. 045407 
22. 0680 -.6 
22.09072x 
22.113344 
22.135943 
22.158519 
181073 
22.203603 
22.226110 
22.248.^96 
,ia.2710&7 


7.559525 
7  .'663i-3 
7.571173 
7.6769S4 
7.68--786 
7  588579 
7.594363 
7.600138 
7.605905 
7.611662 
7.617411 
7.623151 
7 . 628883 
7.634606 
7.640321 
7.646027 
7.651725 
7.657414 
7.663094 
7.668766 
7 


674430 

680085 

685732 

691371 

697002 

7026J4 

708238 

713844 

719442 

7.725032 

7.730614 

7.736187 

7.741753 

7.747310 

7.752860 

7.758402 

7.763936 

7.769462 

7.774980 

7.780490 

7.785992 

7.791487 

7.796974 

7.802453 

7.807925 

7.813389 

7.818845 

7.824294 

7.829735 

7.835168 

7.84C594 

7.846013 


851424 

856828 

862224 

867613 

872994 

878368 

883734 

7.889094 

7.894446 

7.899791 

7.905129 

7.910460 

7.915784 


SQUABES,    CTJBES,    AND   BOOTS. 


307 


No. 

Square. 

Cube. 

Sq.  Root, 

Cu.  Root. 

No. 

Square. 

Cube. 

Sq.  Root. 

Cu.  Root 

407 

247009 

122763473 

.2.293496 

7.921100 

562 

31584^ 

177  043-/8 

23.706639 

8.252371 

498 

248004 

12350599 i 

22.315913 

7.92641J8 

66o 

316969 

178453547 

23.727621 

8.257-268 

499 

249001 

1-^4251499 

22.338307 

7.931710 

664 

318096 

179408144 

23.743684 

8.262149 

600 

250000 

126000000 

22.360679 

7.937006 

565 

319225 

1803621-25 

23.769728 

8.267029 

601 

2.1001 

125751 50 1 

22.333029 

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9.420387 

772 

595984 

460099648 

27.7848-8 

9.173580 

837 

700569 

586376253 

28.93095'. 

9.424141 

773 

597529 

4618^9917 

27.802877 

9.177544 

838 

702244 

588480472 

i8. 948229 

9.427893 

774 

599076 

463684824 

27.820855 

9.181500 

839 

703921 

5905S9719 

28.965496 

9.431642 

775 

600625 

465484375 

27.838821 

9.185452 

840 

705600 

692701000 

28.982763 

9.435388 

776 

602176 

467288576 

27.856776 

9.189401 

841 

707281 

694825321 

29. 

9.439130 

777 

603729 

469097433 

27.874719 

9.193347 

842 

708964 

5969476S8 

29.017236 

9.442870 

778 

605284 

470910962 

27.892651 

9.197289 

843 

710649 

699077107 

29.034462 

9.446607 

779 

606841 

472729139 

27.910571 

9.201228 

844 

71233fi 

601211584 

29.051678 

9.4f034l 

780 

60S400 

474552J00 

27.928480 

9.205164 

845 

714025 

603351126 

29.068883 

9.454071 

781 

609961 

476379541 

27.946377 

9.209096 

846 

715716 

605495736 

29.086079 

9.457799 

782 

611524 

478211768 

i7. 964262 

9.21302O 

847 

717409 

607645423 

29.103264 

9.461524 

783 

613089 

480348687 

27.982137 

9.216950 

848 

719104 

609S00192 

•29.120439 

9.465247 

784 

614656 

481890304 

28. 

9.220872 

849 

72080. 

611960049 

29.1376  4 

9.468966 

785 

616225 

413736025 

28.017851 

9.22471^1 

850 

722500 

614126(00 

29.164769 

9.472682 

786 

617796 

485587656 

28.035691 

9.228706 

851 

724 20 i 

616295051 

29.171904 

9.476395 

787 

619369 

487443403 

28.0636-0 

9.232618 

852 

7259U4 

618470208 

29.189039 

9.480106 

788 

620944 

489303872 

28.071337 

9.237527 

853 

727609 

620650477 

29.206163 

9.483813 

789 

622521 

491169069 

28.089143 

9.240433 

854 

72931H 

622S36864 

29  22327» 

9.487618 

790 

624100 

493039000 

28. 106938 

9.244336 

856 

731026 

625026276 

29.24038a 

9.491219 

791 

625681 

494913671 

28.12472-2 

9.2482:i4 

866 

73273b 

627222016 

29.257477 

9.494918 

792 

627264 

496793' 188 

28.142494 

9.252130 

857 

734446 

629422793 

29.274562 

9.498614 

793 

628849 

498677257 

28.160255 

9.256022 

8  8 

736164 

631628712 

•29.291637 

9.602307 

794 

630436 

600n66184 

28.178005 

8.259911 

859 

737881 

633839779 

29.30870. 

9.606998 

796 

632025 

502459875 

28.196744 

9.263797 

860 

739600 

636056.  00 

29.325756 

9.609685 

796 

633616 

604358336 

28.213472 

9.267679 

861 

741321 

638277381 

•29.342801 

9.513369 

797 

636209 

606261573 

28.231188 

9.271559 

862 

743044 

640503928 

29.359836 

9.517061 

79y 

636804 

608169592 

2S. 248893 

9.275435 

863 

744769 

642735647 

•29.376861 

9.520730 

799 

638401 

610i)82399 

28.266588 

9.279b08 

864 

746496 

644972544 

29.393876 

9.624406 

800 

640000 

61200GOOO 

28.284271 

9  283177 

866 

748225 

647214626 

29.410882 

9.628079 

801 

641601 

613922401 

28.301943 

9.287044 

866 

74995t 

649461896 

-9.427877 

9.631749 

80-2 

643204 

615849608 

28.319604 

9.290907 

867 

761689 

651714363 

■29.444863 

9.636417 

803 

644809 

617781627 

28.337254 

9.294767 

868 

753424 

653972032 

•29.461839 

9.539081 

804 

646416 

619718464 

28.354893 

9.298623 

869 

765161 

656234909 

29.478805 

9.642743 

806 

648025 

621660125 

28.372521 

9.302477 

870 

766900 

658503000 

29.495762 

9.646402 

806 

649636 

623606616 

28.390139 

9.306327 

871 

758641 

660776311 

29.612709 

9.560058 

807 

651249 

625557943 

28.407745 

9.310175 

872 

760384 

663054848 

•29.629646 

9.663712 

808 

652864 

527514112 

28.425340 

9.314019 

873 

762129 

665338617 

29  646573 

9.557363 

809 

654481 

529475129 

28.442925 

9  317859 

874 

76387^ 

667627624 

29.663491 

9.661010 

810 

656100 

531441000 

28.460498 

9.321697 

875 

765625 

669921875 

29.580398 

9.564655 

811 

657721 

533411731 

28.478061 

9.325532 

876 

76737 t 

672221376 

•29.697297 

9.668297 

812 

659344 

535387328 

28.495613 

9. 32936 i 

877 

769129 

674526133 

29.614185 

9.571937 

813 

660969 

537366797 

28.513154 

9.333191 

878 

770884 

676836152 

29.631064 

9.576574 

814 

662596 

639353144 

28.530685 

9.337016 

879 

772641 

679151439 

29.647932 

9.579208 

815 

664225 

641343375 

28.648204 

9.340838 

880 

774400 

681472000 

29.664793 

9.582839 

816 

665H56 

643338496 

28.865713 

9.3446.-7 

881 

776161 

683797841 

•29.681644 

9.686468 

817 

667489 

645338513 

28.683211 

9.348473 

882 

777924 

686128968 

29.698484 

9  590093 

818 

669124 

547343432 

28.600699 

9.352285 

883 

779689 

688465387 

•29.715315 

9.593716 

819  6. 0761 

649353259 

28  618176 

9.356095 

884 

781456 

690807104 

•29.732137 

9.697337 

820  672400 

551368000 

28.635642 

9,359901 

885 

783225 

393154125 

•29.748949 

9. 600954 

821  674041[  663387661 

28.663097 

9.363704 

886 

78499C 

695506456 

29.765762 

9.604569 

310             SQUARES,  CUBES,  AND  ROOTS. 

No. 

Square. 

Cube. 

Sq.  Root, 

Cu.  Root. 

No. 

Square. 

Cube. 

Sq.  Root. 

Cu.  Root. 

887 

786769 

697864103 

29.782546 

9.608181 

944 

891136 

84123V384 

30.724583 

9.809736 

888 

78854- 

700227072 

29.79932S 

9.611791 

94/ 

8930-^6 

8439086-6 

30.7408r2 

9.813198 

889 

79032 

7025»5369 

29. 8161 OB 

9.615397 

94( 

894916 

846690536 

30.757113 

9.816669 

890 

792100 

7^4969000 

29  832867 

9.619001 

947 

89680. 

849278123 

SO  773365 

9  820117 

89 

793881 

707347971 

29.849623 

9.622603 

948 

898704 

861971392 

to. 789608 

9.823572 

892 

795664 

7v>9732288 

29.866369 

9.626201 

949 

900601 

864670349 

30.805843 

9.827026 

893 

79744f 

712  21957 

29.88310 

9.629797 

95( 

902500 

85737500) 

30.822070 

9.830475 

89-1 

79923r 

714616984 

29.899832 

9.6333' 0 

951 

904401 

860085361 

30.838287 

9.833923 

895 

801026 

716917375 

29.9166^0 

9.636981 

9  2 

906304 

862801408 

30.854497 

9.837369 

89e 

802816 

719323136 

29.933259 

9.640-69 

953 

908209 

866523177 

30.870698 

9  840812 

897 

804609 

721734273 

29.9499is8 

9.644154 

9.i4 

910116 

8682506H4 

30.88^890 

9.844253 

8> 

806404 

724150792 

i9. 96664* 

9.647736 

966 

91202- 

870983875 

30.903074 

9  847692 

899 

80820: 

726572699 

29.983328 

9.651316 

95^ 

913936 

873722816 

cO  919^49 

9.851128 

900 

810000 

7290000  0 

0. 

9.654893 

957 

916H49 

8764o749.3 

30.93S416 

9.854561 

901 

8118a4 

731432701 

30.016662 

9.6.^8468 

958 

917764 

879217912 

30.96157 

9.857992 

902 

813604 

733870808 

JO. 03331 4 

9.66.040 

959 

919681 

88197407  9 

30.967725 

9.861421 

90.3 

815-lOt 

736314327 

■.0.049968 

9.665609 

96t 

921600 

884736010 

30.983866 

9.864848 

904 

817216 

738763264 

30.066592 

9.669176 

961 

92352 

887603681 

31. 

9. 868  ..72 

905 

819025 

7412170-^5 

iO. 083217 

9.672740 

962 

92544 J 

890277128 

31.016124 

9.871694 

906 

820836 

743677416 

{0.099833 

9.676301  9ob| 

927369 

893056347 

31.03^241 

9.875113 

907 

822641' 

746142643 

30.116440 

9.679860 

96' 

92929' 

895841S44 

31.048349 

9.878630 

908 

82446- 

748613312 

!0. 133038 

9.683416 

96f. 

93122.' 

8986321 25 

31.064449 

9.881946 

909 

826281 

751089429 

30.149b26 

9.686970 

966 

9331 5f 

901428696 

31.080540 

9.885357 

910 

828101 

763571000 

30.16o206 

9.690521 

967 

935089 

904231063 

31.096623 

9.888767 

911 

82992 i 

766058031 

30.182776 

9.694069 

968 

937024 

907039232 

31.112698 

9.892174 

91- 

831744 

758550528 

30.1993b7 

9.697615 

96' 

938961 

909853209 

.31.128764 

9.895580 

913 

833-6' 

761048497 

30.215889 

9.701158 

9,0 

94090( 

9126731  00 

31.14482^ 

9.898983 

914 

83c39 

763551944 

30.2324o2 

9.704698 

971 

942 S41 

915498611 

31.160872 

9.902383 

915 

837225 

76  060S75 

30.248966 

9.708236 

971 

944784 

91833f048 

31.178914 

9  905781 

916 

839056 

7685; 5:96 

30.265491 

9.711772 

973 

946725 

9211(7317 

31  192947 

9.909177 

917 

84( 889 

771095213 

30.282007 

9.715305 

974 

948676 

924(10424 

31.208973 

9.912571 

918 

84272^ 

773620632 

<0. 298514 

9.7  8835 

97.^ 

95062.^ 

926859375 

31.22.990 

9.915962 

919 

84456 

776151?)59 

30.31501 

9.72.363 

976 

95257f 

929714176 

31.240998 

9.919351 

920 

846406 

778688000 

30.331.501 

9.725888 

977 

954529 

932574833 

31.256999 

9.922738 

9.-1 

84824. 

781229961 

30.347981 

9.72941C 

97  > 

9564M 

935441352 

3 1.27 '^991 

9.926r.2 

9Vi2 

850  84 

783777448 

30.364452 

9.7329cO 

979 

95844; 

938313739 

31.288975 

9.929504 

92a 

851929 

7863  0467 

30.380915 

9.736448 

9-6 

96640! 

9411920U) 

31.304951 

9.9:^2883 

9J4 

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788889024 

30.397368 

9.739963 

98 

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.31.320919 

9.93(261 

92t 

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iO. 413812 

9.743475 

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964324 

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31.336879 

9.939636 

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857476 

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9.746985 

983 

9662^9 

94986:087 

31.352HS0 

9.943(09 

9r, 

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796597983 

30.446674 

9  750493 

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31.368774 

9.940379 

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799178752 

30.4fi309. 

9  753998 

9S; 

970225 

95567162=) 

U.  384709 

9.949747 

929 

863041 

801765689 

30.479501 

9.757500 

986 

972196 

9  85852r6 

31.400636 

9.953113 

930 

864901 

804357000 

0.4969(11 

9.761000 

987 

974169 

961504803 

31.416^56 

9.956477 

931 

866761 

8(16954491 

.30.512292 

9.764497 

988 

976144 

964430272 

31.432467 

9.969839 

93-^ 

86«62' 

80'.>557568 

30.528675 

9.767992 

989 

978121 

967361669 

31.448370 

9.963198 

933 

870489 

812166237 

30.646048 

9  771484 

99 

98010C 

970299000 

31.464265 

9.966554 

934 

872356 

814780504 

.30.561413 

9  774974 

991 

98 -OS] 

973242^71 

31.480152 

9.969909 

935 

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817400376 

30.577769 

9.778461 

99. 

98406 

976191488 

31.496031 

9.973262 

93r 

876096 

820025866 

30.594117 

9.782946 

99 

986049 

979146657 

31.511902 

9.976612 

937 

87796! 

82265695 i 

0.6104  6 

9.785428 

994 

988031 

982107784 

31.627765 

9.979959 

938 

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30.626785 

9.788908 

9':»5 

990025 

985074875 

;a.54362( 

9.983304 

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30.643106 

9.792386 

99^ 

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31.559467 

9.986648 

»4l, 

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30.659419 

9.795861 

997 

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991026973 

31.576H06 

9.989990 

941 

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30.675723 

9.799333 

998 

996004 

994011992 

31.591138 

9.993328 

942 

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836896888 

aO. 6920 18 

9.802803 

999 

9980)1 

997;  02999 

31.606961 

9.996665 

943 

889249 

838561807 

30.708306 

9. 806271 

1000 

lOOOOOO 

lOOOOOOOOO 

31.622776 

10. 

THE  SOIL. 

The  soil  is  made  up  of  decomposed  rocks  and  decayed  or 
decaying  organic  matter.  The  proportion  of  organic  mat- 
ter is  small — not  averaorino^  in  fertile  soils  more  than  five 
per  cent.  All  of  the  rest  of  the  soil  is  of  a  mineral  origin, 
and  has  at  some  period  formed  a  part  of  the  rocky  crust  of 
the  earth. 

By  the  action  of  air,  and  heat,  and  frost,  and  the  friction 
of  running  and  falling  water,  and  the  movement  of  rocks 
and  stones  in  moving  water,  these  substances  have  been  suf- 
ficiently pulverized  to  form  the  foundation  material  of  our 
present  soil. 

During  uncounted  ages  these  processes  have  been  going 
on,  and  they  are  still  active;  and,  in  addition  to  these, 
the  chemical  changes  which  result  from  the  exposure  of  pul- 
verized mineral  matter  to  the  action  of  air  and  moisture, 
and  the  successive  growth  and  decay  of  plants,  have  oper- 
ated, and  are  still  operating,  to  ripen  the  soil  to  our  uses. 

In  the  early  ages,  when  perhaps  the  compositiftn  of  the 
atmosphere  was  different  from  what  it  is  now  (and  when  the 
soil  was  surely  very  different),  only  plants  of  a  low  order, 
such  as  are  now  extinct,  could  grow  at  all.  These  absorbed 
certain  matters  from  the  atmosphere,  and,  on  their  decay, 
gave  them  to  the  soil, — thus  helping  to  fit  it  for  the  growth 


312  THE    SOIL. 

of  a  higher  order  of  plants,  which  were  in  time  succeeded 
by  others,  and  those  by  others,  until,  finally,  the  changes 
eiFected  in  the  soil  by  the  action  of  the  chemical  forces,  and 
by  the  deposit  of  vegetable  matter,  have  enabled  it  to  pro- 
duce the  vegetation  required  for  the  uses  of  man. 

Classification  of  soils. 

Some  soils  were  formed  mainly  of  the  rocks  on  which  they 
now  lie — as  those  of  the  granite  region  of  New  England — 
and  these  take  their  names  from  these  rocks,  as  granitio  soil, 
limestone  soil,  sandstone  soil,  &c. 

Others  have  been  formed  by  the  deposit,  by  means  of 
great  floods,  or  the  gradual  silting  of  rivers.  The  latter 
of  these  (as  the  flat  lands  of  the  Mississippi  Yalley)  are 
called  alluvial  soils  ;  and  the  former  (comprising  those  soils 
of  varied  composition  in  which  occur  clay,  gravel,  boulders, 
&c.)  are  called  diluvial  soils. 

Another  classification,  which  is  much  more  definite,  is  the 
following : — 

1.  Pure  Clay  consists  of  about  60  per  cent,  of  silica  and 
40  per  cent,  of  alumina  and  oxide  of  iron,  usually  chemi- 
cally combined. 

2.  Strongest  Clay  Soil  consists  of  pure  clay,  mixed 
with  5  to  15  per  cent,  of  silicious  sand. 

3.  Clay  Loam  consists  of  pure  clay,  mixed  with  15  to  30 
per  cent,  of  fine  sand. 

4.  Loamy  Soil  deposits  from  30  to  60  per  cent,  of  sand. 


THE    SOIL.  313 

5.  Sandy  Loam  deposits  from  60  to  90  per  cent,  of  sand. 

6.  Sandy  Soil  contains  no  more  than  10  per  cent,  of  pure 
clay. 

To  analyze  the  above  soils  with  a  view  to  classifying  them. 

Rule. — Weigh  a  portion  of  the  soil  and  spread  it  thinly 
on  writing  paper,  and  dry  it  for  an  hour  or  two  in  an  oven, 
the  heat  of  which  is  not  great  enough  to  discolor  the  paper 
— the  loss  of  weight  is  the  quantity  o^  water  it  contained. 

Weigh  and  then  boil  another  equal  portion,  and  when 
thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  water,  pour  it  into  a  vessel, 
and  allow  the  sandy  parts  to  deposit  until  the  fine  clay  is 
also  beginning  to  settle ;  then  pour  off  the  water,  collect  the 
sand,  dry  as  before,  and  again  weigh,  which  will  give  the 
per  cent,  of  sand  it  contained. 

The  above  classification  and  analysis  of  soils  have  refer- 
ence only  to  the  water,  clay,  and  sand  which  they  contain, 
while  lime  is  also  an  important  constituent,  of  which  they 
are  rarely  entirely  destitute.  This  gives  rise  to  a  further 
classification. 

7.  Marly  Soil  is  one  in  which  the  proportion  of  lime  is 
more  than  5,  and  not  over  20  per  cent,  of  the  whole  weight. 

8.  Calcareous  Soil,  in  which  the  lime  exceeds  20  per 
cent. 

To  analyze  marly  and  calcareous  soils,  with  a  view  to 
their  classification  as  above. 

EuLE. — ^Mix  100  grains  of  the  dry  soil  with  half  a  pint 

14 


314  THE    SOIL. 

of  water,  and  add  half  a  wine-glassful  of  muriatic  acid ; 
stir  it  thoroughly  during  the  day,  and  let  it  stand  and  settle 
over  night.  Pour  oif  the  clear  liquid  in  the  morning,  and 
again  fill  the  vessel  with  water  and  stir  thoroughly,  and 
when  clear  again  pour  it  oif;  dry  the  soil  and  weigh  it. 
The  loss  is  the  quantity  of  lime  the  soil  contained.  If  it 
exceeds  5  o:rs.,  class  as  a  marly  soil  ^  if  mare  than  20  grs., 
class  as  a  calcareoics  soil, 

9.  Vegetable  Moulds,  which  are  of  various  kinds,  con- 
taining from  15  to  60  or  70  per  cent,  of  organic  matter. 

To  analyze  vegetable  moulds^  with  a  view  to  their  classifi- 
cation as  above. 

E-uLE. — Dry  the  soil  well  in  an  oven,  and  weigh  it ;  then 
heat  it  to  a  dull  redness,  over  a  lamp  or  bright  fire,  until  the 
combustible  matter  is  burned  away  and  evaporated.  Again 
weigh  it,  and  the  loss  is  the  quantity  of  organic  matter  it 
contained. 

Besides  the  foregoing  ingredients,  every  soil  must  contain 
more  or  less  of  all  the  elements  which  enter  into  the  com- 
position of  vegetation.  They  must  hold,  in  a  form  adapted 
to  its  growth  and  support,  silex^  alumina^  carbonate  of  lime, 
sulphate  of  lime,  potash,  soda,  magnesia,  sulphur,  phos- 
phorus, oxide  of  iron,  manganese,  chlorine,  and,  probably, 
iodine.  They  are  called  the  ''  inorganic  or  earthy  parts  of 
soil,"  and  constitute  from  one-half  of  one  per  cent,  to  over 
ten  per  cent,  of  all  vegetables.     Their  analysis  is  too  diffi- 


THE    SOIL. 


315 


cult  and  complicated  to  be  attempted  by  any  but  a  practical 
agricultural  chemist. 

The  value  of  soil  analysis,  even  when  made  by  the  most 
careful  and  skilful  chemists,  is  practically  very  little.  The 
quantity  of  matter  which  is  capable  of  affording  food  to 
plants  is  so  very  small,  in  proportion  to  the  whole  bulk  of 
the  soil,  even  in  those  of  the  most  fertile  character,  that  it 
is  questionable  whether  a  sample  to  be  analyzed  could  be  so 
carefully  prepared  as  to  represent  the  average  character  of 
the  whole  field.  Then,  again,  if  we  were  to  procure  a  cor- 
rect analysis  of  a  very  fertile  soil,  and  then  were  to  crop  it 
for  a  series  of  years  without  manure  until  it  refused  to  pro- 
duce paying  crops,  and  were  to  have  it  analyzed  again,  it  is 
not  likely  that  the  chemist  would  detect  any  change  in  its 
composition.  In  like  manner,  if  we  were  to  add  to  it  500 
lbs.  to  the  acre  of  bone  dust, — enough  to  make  it  produce 
abundantly, — analysis  would  fail  to  detect  the  small  quantity 
of  phosphate  of  lime  that  we  had  added  in  the  bones. 

Another  argument  against  the  value  of  the  analysis  of  the 
soil,  and  a  very  strong  one,  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soil  depends  less  on  the  quamtity  of  plant  food 
that  it  contains  than  on  its  condition.  The  roots  of  plants 
cannot  feed  on  the  inside  of  a  pebble ;  they  can  only  apply 
their  pumps  to  its  surface  and  take  in  so  much  of  what  is 
there  exposed  as  can  be  dissolved  in  the  moisture  which  goes 
to  form  their  sap.  IS'either  can  roots  travel  about  in  the 
soil ;  they  grow  into  certain  places,  and  there  they  remain. 


316  THE    SOIL. 

If  an  inch  away  from  them  there  is  a  mass  of  rich  food,  they 
cannot  make  use  of  it — save  by  sending  out  new  shoots  to 
embrace  it — but  must  remain  content  with  the  poorer  tract 
in  which  they  lie.  Consequently,  the  uniform  distribution- 
of  the  plant  food,  its  solubility^  and  its  exposure  on  the  sur- 
faces of  the  particles  of  the  soil  are  quite  as  important  as 
its  quantity. 

Chemical  analysis  teaches  us  none  of  those  things — at 
least  it  does  not  teach  them  so  definitely  as  we  would  need 
to  know  them  to  be  able  to  make  any  practical  use  of  its 
assistance. 

In  addition  to  these,  fertile  soils  must  also  contain  carbon, 
oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  hydrogen,  which  are  called  the  organic 
parts  of  soils,  from  their  great  preponderance  in  vegetables 
and  animals,  of  which  they  constitute  from  90  to  over  99 
per  cent. 

General  results  of  analytical  examinations  of  soils. 

1.  A  due  admixture  of  organic  matter  is  favorable  to  the 
fertility  of  a  soil. 

2.  This  organic  matter  is  the  more  valuable  in  proportion 
to  the  quantity  of  nitrogen  it  holds  in  combination. 

3.  The  mineral  part  of  the  soil  must  contain  all  those 
substances  which  are  met  with  in  the  ash  of  the  plant,  and 
in  such  a  state  of  chemical  combination  that  the  roots  of 
plants  can  readily  take  them  up  in  the  requisite  propor- 
tions. 


THE    SOIL. 


317 


Taijle,  showing  the  comjposition^  in  1000  parts,  of  different 
kinds  of  soil. 


CONSTITUENTS. 

Fertile  without  manure. 

Fertile  with  manure. 

Very  Barren. 

Organic  matter, 

97. 

60. 

40. 

Silica, 

648. 

833. 

758. 

Alumina, 

67. 

61. 

101. 

Lime, 

59. 

18. 

4. 

Magnesia, 

8. 

8. 

1. 

Oxide  of  Iron, 

61. 

30. 

91. 

*'    of  Manganese, 

1. 

3. 

trace 

Potash, 

2. 

trace 

.... 

Soda, 

4. 

... 

Chlorine, 

2. 

Sulphuric  Acid, 

2. 

1. 

.... 

Phosphoric  •' 

4. 

2. 

.... 

Carbonic     *♦ 

40. 

4. 

Loss, 

16. 

.... 

6. 

Note. — The  soil  designated  "  fertile  without  manure  " 
has  been  cultivated  sixty  years  without  manuring,  yielding 
abundant  crops.  The  soil  designated  "  fertile  with  manure  " 
has  been  cultivated  over  forty  years,  yielding  good  crops 
with  ordinary  manuring;  while  that  designated  "very  bar- 
ren "  could  scarcely  be  made  to  yield  anything  by  the 
greatest  manuring  and  most  careful  cultivation. 

The  following  is  an  analysis  of  three  specimens  of  verv 
fertile  soils,  made  by  Sprengel : — 

Soil  near 
Ostcrbruch. 

Silica.  Quartz,  Sand,  and  Silicates 84.510 

Alumina   6.435 

Oxides  of  Iron 2.395 

Oxides  of  Manganese 0.450 

Lime 0.740 

Magnesia 0.525 

Potash  and  Soda  extracted  by  water 0.009 

Phosphoric  Acid 0.120 

Sulphuric  Acid 9.046 

Chlorine  in  common  Salt 0.006 

Humic  Acid 0.780 

Insoluble  Humus 2.995 

Organic  matters  containing  Xitrogen 0.960 

"Water 0.029 


From  the  banks  of  the  Weser, 


near  Hoya. 

near  AVeserbe. 

71.849 

83.318 

9.350 

3.085 

5.410 

5.840 

0.925 

0.620 

0.987 

0.720 

0.245 

0.120 

0.007 

0.005 

0.131 

0.065 

0.174 

0.025 

0.002 

0.006 

1.270 

0.800 

.550 

4.126 

2.000 

1.220 

0.100 

0.150 

318  THE    SOIL. 

The  above  had  remained  a  long  time  in  pasture,  and  the 
second  was  remarkable  for  the  fattening  qualities  of  its  grass 
when  fed  to  cattle. 

The  following  are  arable  lands  of  great  fertility : — 

From  Ohio.  Soil 

Soil  from  Moravia.  Soil.  Subsoil.        from  Belgium. 

Silica  and  fine  Sand ..77.209  87.143  94.261  64.517 

Alumina 8.514  6.666  1.376  4.810 

Oxides  of  Iron 6.592  2.220  2.336  8.816 

Oxide  of  Manganese 1.520  0.360  1.200  0.800 

Lime 0.927  0.564  ^-^^^  ^Lime^    ^'^^'^ 

Magnesia 1.160  0.312  0.310  ^^^^f  10.361 

Potash,  chiefly  combined  with  *=" 

Silica 0.140  0.120)  j  0.100 

Soda,  ditto 0.640  0.025  f  ^'"^^^                 (  0.013 

Phosphoric     Acid,     combined 

with  Lime  and  Ox.  of  Iron . .  0.651  0.060  trace                   1.221 

Sulphuric  Acid  and  Gypsum..  0.011  0.027  0.034                   0.009 

Chlorine  in  common  Salt 0.010  0.036  trace                  0.003 

Carbonic  Acid  united  to  the 

Lime 0.080  

Humic  Acid 0.978  1.304  0.447 

Insoluble  Humus 0.540  1.072  

Organic  Substances  containing 

Nitrogen 1.108  LOll  

"  Of  these  soils,  the  first  had  been  cropped  for  160  years 
successively,  without  either  manure  or  naked  fallow.  The 
second  was  a  virgin  soil,  and  celebrated  for  its  fertility. 
The  third  had  been  unmanured  for  twelve  years,  during  the 
last  nine  of  which  it  had  been  cropped  with  beans,  barley, 
potatoes,  winter  barley  and  red  clover,  clover,  winter  barley, 
wheat,  oats,  naked  fallow." — Johnston, 

Depth  of  soil — its  importance. 

If  50  be  assumed  as  the  value  of  a  given  soil  when  it  is  six 
inches  deep,  its  value  when  of  different  depths  will  be  as 
follows : — 


THE    ROIL.  319 

If   3  inches  deep,  it  is  worth  38  (  If   8  inches  deep,  it  is  worth  58 

4  "          "         •'          "  42  9       "          "        "          "  62 

5  "  "  "  "  46  !  10  "  '•  "  "  66 
«  "  "  "  "  50  i  11  "  "  "  "  10 
7       "          "         "          "  54  I  12       "          "         "          "  14: 

Hence  each  farmer  may  make  an  estimate  for  himself, 
with  regard  to  every  variety  of  his  soil,  whether  the  cost  of 
increasing  its  depth  will  equal  or  exceed  its  value  after  the 
task  is  performed. 

This,  of  course,  supposes  that  the  soil  is  of  the  same  quality 
throughout  its  whole  depth,  and  it  refers  only  to  its  chemi- 
cal composition.  Thei^  are  other  considerations  which 
make  the  depth  of  the  soil  more  important  even  than  the 
above  table  will  indicate.  If  a  soil  is  equally  rich  through- 
out its  whole  depth,  it  would  be  of  more  than  double  value 
if  of  double  depth  ;  for  its  ability  to  withstand  drought,  and 
its  great  capacity  to  absorb  the  water  of  heavy  rains  (with- 
out being  made  too  wet)  would  made  it  better,  irrespective 
of  the  elements  of  fertility  that  it  might  contain.  Then 
again,  some  soils  which  are  of  apparently  no  value  may  be 
made  quite  fertile  by  being  ploughed  a  little  deeper  than 
has  been  done. 

Table,  showing  the  weight  per  cuhio  foot  of  the  different 
hinds  of  earth. 


Loose  earth  or  sand 95  lbs. 

Common  soil 124     " 

Strong  soU 127     " 

Chalk 174     " 


Clay 135  lbs. 

Clay  and  stones 160     " 

Brick 126     " 


IToTE. — 23  cubic  feet  of  sand,  18  cubic  feet  of  earth,  or 
17  cubic  feet  of  clay,  make  a  ton.     Eighteen  cubic  feet  of 


320  EXHAUSTION   OF  SOILS. 

gravel  or  earth,  before  digging,  make  27  cubic  feet  when 
dug. 

As  a  rough  estimate,  it  may  be  stated  that  an  acre  of  or- 
dinary soil  weighs  100  tons  for  every  inch  of  its  depth. 


EXHAUSTION  OF  SOILS. 

Each  crop  taken  from  a  field  exhausts  the  soil  to  the  ex- 
tent of  the  inorganic  or  earthy  substances  that  are  found  in 
the  totality  of  the  crop  removed.  Unless,  therefore,  these 
elements  are  returned  to  the  soil  in  some  shape  it  gradually 
loses  its  fertility,  and  finally  refuses  to  produce  altogether. 
Hence  the  necessity  for  manuring,  irrigating,  or  resting  the 
soil,  that  it  may  again,  by  accumulating  these  elements,  re- 
cover its  fertility.  By  returning  a  crop  in  toto  to  the  soil, 
by  ploughing  it  in  or  leaving  it  to  decay  and  mingle  again 
with  it,  it  accumulates  in  mass  and  grows  in  fertility,  not 
by  the  substances  thus  returned  to  it,  but  by  fertilizing  ele- 
ments gathered  in  or  combined  from  the  atmosphere,  by  rains 
and  dews  descending  on  it,  and  by  capillary  attraction  from 
beneath. 

By  knowing  the  composition  of  the  subtracted  crops  and 
the  added  manures,  the  farmer  can  keep  a  debit  and  credit 
account  with  his  fields,  which  will  be  sufficiently  accurate 
to  enable  him  always  to  keep  his  land  improving.  To  enable 
him  to  ascertain  approximately  what  his  various  crops  remove 
from  the  soil,  we  introduce  the  following  tables,  &c.     To 


EXHAUSTION    OF    SOILS. 


321 


50 

887 

15 

90 

50 

378 

21 

77 

58 

447 

15 

40 

58 

434 

23 

23 

53 

389J 

H 

70 

64 

367 

22 

40 

54 

390 

4 
Johnston. 

51 

ascertain  what  will  replace  this  subtraction,  let  him  consult 
the  section  on  manures. 

Table,  showing  the  organic  substances  removed  from  the  soil 
in  1000  lbs.  each  of  the  following  crops  when  perfectly  dry. 

Carbon.     Hydrogen.    Oxygen.    Nitrogen.    Ash. 
lbs.  lbs.  lbs.  lbs.  lbs. 

Hay 458 

Red  Clover  Hay 474 

Potatoes 440 

Wheat- 461 

Wheat  straw 484 

Oats 507 

Oat-straw 501 

!N"oTE. — Of  all  the  vegetable  productions  which  are  gath- 
ered as  food  for  man  or  beast  in  their  dry  state — 

Carbon  forms  nearly  one-half  by  weight. 

Oxygen  rather  more  than  one-third. 

Hydrogen  little  more  than  five  per  cent. 

Nitrogen  from  \\  to  ^per  cent. 

Earthy  matter  from  1  to  20  per  cent. 
Table,  showvng  the  quantity  of  inorganic  mMter  removed 

from  the  soil  in  1000  lbs.  each  of  the  following  crops  in 

their  ordinary  state  of  dinjness. 

lbs. 
"Wheat about  20 


Wheat-straw. 

Barley 

Barley-straw 

Oats 

Oat-straw 

Rye 

Rye-straw 

Indian  Corn 

Indian  Corn  stalk,  &c. 


lbs. 

Beans about  30 

Peas "      30 

Pea-straw ♦'      50 

Meadow  Hay "      50  to  100 

Clover  Hay "      90 

Rye-grass  Hay. "      95 

Potatoes "        8  to    15 

Turnips "        5  to      8 

Carrots "      15  to    20 


14* 


Johnston, 


322 


EXHAUSTION    OF    SOILS. 


Table,  showing  tJie  quantity  and  kinds  of  inorganic  matter 
removed  from  the  soil  in  1000  lbs.  each  of  the  following 
crops. 


A 

i 

a 

a 

3 

1 

■«! 

.S 
u 

a 

i 

n 

a 

•c 

2. 

1 

o 
« 

H 

a 

•Si 

a. 

•ji 

yA 

a 

■< 

ta 

tZJ 

f^ 

a 

O 

o 

M 

Wheat— Grain 

2.25 

2.40 

0  96 

0.90 

0  2f5 

4. CO 

0.50 

0.40 

0.10 

trace 

11.77 

Straw 

0.20 

0.29 

2.40 

0.32 

0.90  28.70 

0.37 

1.70 

0.30 

35.18 

Barley— Grain 

2.78 

2.90 

).06 

1.80 

0.25  11.82 

.59 

2.10 

0.19 

trace 

23.49 

Straw 

1.80 

0.48 

6.54 

0.76 

1.46  38.66 

1.18 

1.60 

0.70 

o.n 

0.20 

62.42 

Oati— Grain 

1.60 

1.3^ 

0.86 

0.67 

0.14  19. 7t 

0.35 

0.70 

0.10 

0.40 

25.80 

'*      Straw 

8.70 

0.02 

1.52 

0.22 

0.06  45  88 

0.79 

0.12 

0.05 

0.02 

0.02 

57.40 

Rye— Grain. 

5.32 
0.S2 

* 
0.11 

1.22 
1.78 

0.44 
0.12 

0.24'   1.64 

0.23 
1.70 

0.46 
0.51 

0  09 
0.17 

0.4: 

0.34 

10.40 

"       Straw 

0.25 

22.97 

27.93 

Fieldl  Bean 

Bean  j  Straw 

4.  If) 

8.16 

1.65 

1.P8 

0.34 

1.26 

0.89 

2.92 

0.41 

21.36 

16.66 

0.5C 

6.24 

2.09 

0.1'> 

2.20 

0.34 

2.26 

0.80 

COT 

0.05 

31.21 

FieldlPea 

Pea  J  Straw 

8.10 

7.39 

0.58 

1.36 

0.20 

4.10 

0.53 

1.90 

0.38 

0.10 

24.64 

2.35 
4.028 

2.334 

27.30 
.33) 

3.42 
.324 

0.60 
.051- 

9.96 
.034 

3.37 
.540 

2.40 
.401 

0.04 

.160 

0.2C 
.032 

0.07 

49.71 

■'°'»'<«{C:.:::::: 

8.284 

8.19 

.0£ 

12  97 

1.70 

.04 

4.94 

.42 

1.97 

.60 

.02 

30.84 

T"n"p».{Lr»;::::: 

2.38R 

1.048 

.752 

.254 

.036 

.388 

.801 

.367 

.239 

.032 

6.30^ 

3.23 

2.'2-.' 

6.20 

.59 

.03 

1.-28 

2.5-.' 

.98 

.87 

.17 

18.09 

3  533 

.922 
.702 

657 
.468 

.3S4 

.270 

.039 
.024 

.137 
.102 

.270 
.192 

.514 
.100 

.070 

.178 

.033 
.005 

.060 

? 

6.619 

Parsnips 

2.079 

4.180 

Rye  Grass 

8.81 

3.94 

7.34 

0.90 

0  31 

27.71' 

3.53 

0.25 

0.06 

52.86 

Red  Clover •,. 

19.95 

5.ti9 

27.80 

3.33 

0.14 

3.61 

4.47 

6. 57 

3.62 

74.78 

White  CI  over 

;a.05 

6.79 

33.48 

3.05 

1.9it 

14.73 

3.53 

5.06 

2.11 

0.63 

91.32 

Lucern 

13.40 

e.ir 

4S.3' 

3.48 

0.30 

3.30 

4.04 

13.07 

3.18 

O.SO 

95  62 

Sainfoin 

20.57 

4.S7 

2'. 95 

2.88 

0.66 

\  6.00 

3.41 

9. IP 

l..'^7 

» 

69.67 

Sprengel. 

!N"oTE. — In  the  foregoing  table,  the  grain,  beans,  peas, 
straw,  and  hay,  are  estimated  after  they  have  been  dried  in 
the  air;  the  roots  as  they  have  been  taken  from  the  field. 
The  potato  loses  in  drying  69  per  cent,  of  water ;  the  turnip 
91 ;  the  carrot  87 ;  the  turnip-leaf  86  ;  the  carrot-leaf,  pars- 
nip, and  parsnip-leaf,  each  81 ;  and  the  cabbage  93. 

Besides  the  organic  elements  present  in  each  of  the  above 
crops,  and  which  form  about  97  per  cent,  of  the  entire  dried 
weight  of  each,  it  is  not  only  necessary  that  all  the  above 
*  Included  in  potash. 


EXHAUSTION   OF   SOILS. 


323 


morgcmic  substances  should  exist  in  the  soil,  but  that  they 
be  also  found  in  a  form  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  grow- 
ing crop. 


Analysis  of  the  Ash  of  the  Hop,  showing  the  elements 
it  removes  from  the  soil. 

In  100  parts  there  are  of 


Vine  &  Blossom. 

Silica 13.24 

Ciiloride  of  Sodium. . .   7.73 
"  Potassium.  3.77 

Soda 0.13 

Potash 21.49 

Lime 34.79 


Blossom. 
2L05 


25.18 
15.98 


Vine  &  Blossom.  Blossom. 

iia 4.09  5.77 

Sulphuric  Acid 4.63  5.41 

Phosphoric    "     6..34  9.08 

Phosphate  of  Iron   3.79  7.45 

Chloride  of  Potassium.  1.67 

Alumina a  trace 


32i 


EXHAUSTION   OF   SOILS. 


The  following  tables,  extracted  from  Waring's  Elements 
of  Agriculture,  will  be  found  convenient  for  ordinary  com- 
putations : — 

Amount  of  iTwrgomic  Matter  'removed  from  the  soil  hy  ten 
hushels  of  grain^  c&c.,  and  hy  the  straw ^  c&c,  required  in 
th  eir  production — estimated-  in  pounds  : 


Wheat. 

1200  lbs. 
Wheat 
Straw. 

Rye. 

1620  lbs. 
Rye 

Straw. 

Potash 

2.86 

1.04 
.34 

1.46 
.08 
.03 

6.01 

.14 

8.97 

.12 

4.84 

2.76 

.94 

4.20 

2.22 

.79 

47.16 

2.51 

1.33 
.56 

1.18 
.15 
.11 

5.64 

.05 

11   34 

Soda 

20 

Lime 

5  91 

Magnesia 

1  58 

Oxide  of  Iron 

.88 

Sulphuric  Acid 

.05 

Phosphoric  Acid 

'    2  49 

Chlorine 

30 

Silica 

42.25 

Pounds   carried  off 

12 

72 

m 

66 

Com. 

1620  lbs. 
Corn 

stalks. 

Oats. 

700  lbs. 

Oat 
straw. 

Potash 

2.78 

.12 
1.52 

4.52 
.06 

6.84 

19.83 

6.02 

4.74 

.57 

.36 

12.15 

1.33 

19.16 

1.69 

.39 
.64 
.02 
.66 
2.80 
.02 
.18 

12.08 

Soda 

Lime 

3.39 

Magnesia 

1.59 

Oxide   of  Iron 

.78 

Sulphuric  Acid 

1.41 

Phosphoric  Acid 

1.07 

Chlorine 

1.36 

Silica 

20.32 

Pounds  carried  off     

9 

71 

6i 

42 

EXHAUSTION  OF    SOILS. 


325 


Potash 

Soda 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Oxide  of  Iron 

Sulphuric  Acid 

Phosphoric  Acid.. 

Chlorine , 

Sihca 

Pounds  carried  ofiF. 


Buck 
Wheat. 

Barley. 

660  bbls. 
Barley 
Straw. 

1.01 

1.90 

2.57 

2.13 

1.18 

.23 

.•78 

.96 

3.88 

1.20 

1.00 

1.31 

.14 

.20 

.90 

.25 

.01 

.66 

5.40 

5  35 

1.25 

01 

.40 

.09 

3.90 

28.80 

- 

14 

40 

2000  lbs. 
Flax. 


11.78 

11.82 

11.85 

9.38 

7.32 

3.19 

13.05 

2.90 

25.11 


100 


Beans, 

1120  lbs. 
Bean 
Straw. 

Field 
Peas. 

1366  lbs. 
Pea 

Straw. 

Potash 

5.54 

1.83 

98.98 

.28 

.10 

.16 

7.80 

.13 

.18 

36.28 

1.09 

13.60 

4.55 

.20 

.64 

5.00 

1.74 

4.90 

5.90 
1.40 

.81 
1.30 

.15 

64 

5.50 

.23 

.7 

3.78 

Soda 

Lime 

43.93 

Magnesin 

5.50 

Oxide   of  Iron 

1.40 

Sulphuric  Acid 

5.43 

Phosphoric  Acid 

3.86 

Chlorine 

.08 

Silica 

16.02 

Pounds   carried   oft'. ...         

17 

68 

16 

80 

ITon 
Turnips. 


635  lbs. 
Turnip 
Tops. 


1  Ton 
Potatoes. 


2000  Ibe. 

Red 
Clover. 


Potash 

Soda 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Oxide  of  Iron .... 
Sulphuric  Acid. . .  . 
Phosphoric  Acid. .  . 

Chlorine 

Silica 

Pounds   carried  off 


7.14 
.86 

2.31 
.91 
.23 

2.30 

1.29 
.61 

1.36 


4.34 

.84 

8.61 

.48 

.13 

1.81 

1.31 

2.35 

.13 


27.82 
.93 
1.03 
2.63 
.26 
6.81 
6.25 
2  13 
2.14 


31.41 
8.34 

43.77 

5.25 

.23 

7.05 

10.28 
6.86 
6.81 


17 


15 


50 


118 


326 


EXHAUSTION    OF    SOILS. 


2000  lbs. 

Meadow 

Hay. 

2000  lbs. 

Cabbage. 

Water  9-10 

Potash 

18.11 
1.35 

22.95 
6.75 
1.69 
2.70 
5.97 
2.59 

37.89 

5   25 

Soda 

9  20 

Lime 

9  45 

Magnesia 

2  70 

Oxide  of  Iron 

25 

Sulphuric    Acid 

9  60 

Pliosphoric  Acid , . 

5.60 

Chlorine                    

2  60 

Sihca...                   

35 

Pounds  carried  oflF 

100 

45 

MANURES. 


In  order  to  restore  to  the  soil  the  mattei*s  which  have  been 
taken  from  it  by  the  removal  of  its  produce,  as  well  as  to 
add  to  its  power  to  produce — to  make  it  richer,  or  to  keep  it 
from  growing  poorer — we  make  use  of  what  are  known  as 
manures. 

This  term  is  a  very  comprehensive  one,  and  is  taken  to 
mean  all  substances — whatever  their  character  or  origin — 
which  will  have  the  effect  of  causing  a  larger  gi'owth  of 
vegetation. 

Manures  may  be  either  mechcmical  or  chemical  in  their 


328 


MANURES. 


mode  of  action,  or  they  may  partake  of  both  of  these  cha° 
racters.  For  instance,  barn-yard  manure  is  both  mechanical 
and  chemical  in  its  effect. 

By  reason  of  its  bulk  and  its  coarseness  it  loosens  the  soil 
and  makes  it  more  porous  when  mixed  with  it ;  when  it  is 
used  as  a  top-dressing  it  shades  the  ground,  and  protects  it 
in  a  measure  against  the  effect  of  frost  and  of  too  great  heat ; 
being  a  very  active  absorbent  of  moisture,  it  modifies  the 
effect  of  drought;  its  decomposition  produces  heat,  and 
raises  the  temperature  of  the  soil. 

All  of  these  are  Tnechanical  effects. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  affords  to  the  roots  of  plants  sub- 
stances which  enter  directly  into  their  structures,  as  chemical 
constituents ;  it  also  yields  various  acids,  alkalies,  and  salts 
which  enter  into  combination  with  the  constituent  parts  of 
the  soil,  and — in  one  way  or  another — make  them  more 
available  as  plant  food. 

These  are  chemical  effects. 

The  use  of  Manures. 

In  the  use  of  manures  the  farmer  should  be  guided  not 
only  by  the  effect  that  will  be  produced  on  the  immediate 
crop — although  this  is,  of  course,  the  first  consideration — 
but  quite  as  much  by  the  condition  in  which  the  soil  will  be 
left  for  the  production  of  future  crops.  Unless  he  does  this 
he  may  find  that,  while  he  has  reaped  a  temporary  benefit, 
he  has  inflicted  a  lasting  injury  on  his  fields. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  in  our  account  of  the  soil  it 


MANURES.  329 

was  shown  that  the  amount  of  mineral  plant  food  that  is 
actually  present  in  the  soil  in  an  available  form  is  extremely 
limited.  In  a  state  of  nature,  our  fields  would  produce  only 
such  crops  as  could  be  fed  by  the  small  amount  of  this 
plant  food  which  is  rendered  available  from  year  to  year, 
and  there  would  be  no  diminution  of  production.  On  the 
contrary,  the  decay  of  the  crop  of  one  year  would  probably 
add  to  the  supply  available  for  the  next  year.  The  removal 
of  the  Gi'ojp  hy  man^  not  the  production  of  a  crop  which  on 
decay  returns  its  elements  to  the  soil,  is  what  impoverishes — 
is  what  makes  the  use  of  manure  vitally  necessary  on  all  but 
virgin  lands. 

The  larger  the  crop — provided  it  decays  on,  the  land — the 
more  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  increased. 

The  larger  the  crop — provided  it  is  removed  from  the 
land — the  more  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  diminished. 

If  the  crop  is  made  larger  by  the  use  of  manure,  and  is 
removed  from  the  land,  the  manure  has  caused  a  larger 
amount  of  mineral  plant  food  to  be  taken  away.  But  if 
the  manure  itself  contains  the  full  equivalent  of  what  enters 
into  the  crop,  and  so  makes  up  for  its  drain  upon  the  soil, 
there  will  be  no  impoverishment.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
manure  does  not  contain  the  equivalent  of  the  ash-constitu- 
ents of  the  crop,  but  has  only  stimulated  it  to  take  an  extra 
supply  from  the  soil,  the  injury  is  obvious. 

In  some  cases,  a  soil  that  will  produce  10  bushels  of  wheat 
without  manure  will  produce  25  bushels  if  dressed  with  100 


330  MANURES. 

lbs.  of  sulphate  of  ammonia.  The  extra  15  bushels  con- 
tain about  18  lbs.  of  mineral  matter  more,  wliich  was  sup- 
plied by  the  manure,  and  this  is  equal  to  one  and  a  half 
year's  supply  for  the  natural  crop  of  the  land.  The  effect 
of  this  sort  of  farming  is  that  the  soil  is  made  to  produce 
more  than  it  can  afford  to  in  one  year,  and  has  its  supply  of 
mineral  plant  food  exhausted  to  the  detriment  of  its  future 
productiveness. 

Twenty  years  ago,  the  wheat  lands  of  Delaware,  which 
had  been  producing  very  small  crops,  were  made,  by  the 
use  of  very  small  doses  of  Peruvian  guano,  to  double,  triple, 
even  quadruple  their  yield.  The  farmers  were  immensely 
elated.  They  had  found  a  sort  of  philosopher's  stone,  and 
a  few  years  would  make  their  fortune.  Alas  for  their  hopes 
— a  very  few  years  demonstrated  the  fact  that  the  guano  had 
been  a  curse  rather  than  a  blessing.  Their  lands  were  poorer 
than  ever,  and  even  largely  increased  doses  of  the  specific 
were  powerless  to  bring  them  up  even  to  their  old  stan- 
dard. 

Had  the  wheat  and  straw  been  consumed  on  the  farm, 
and  all  of  their  mineral  constituents  returned  to  the  soil, 
the  guano  would  have  been  a  means  of  great  permanent 
improvement. 

Or,  had  the  same  increase  of  production  been  effected  by 
the  use  of  a  manure  containing  the  full  equivalent  of  what 
the  crop  was  to  take  from  the  soil,  the  impoverishment  of 
the  land  would  have  been  prevented. 


MANURES.  331 

The  foregoing  is  intended  to  convey  the  fundamental  ideas 
which  we  should  bear  in  mind  in  deciding  what  manures  we 
are  to  use,  and  in  what  quantity.  It  is  quite  impossible  to 
establish  any  set  of  rules  which  shall  be  an  exact  guide  for 
all  cases,  but  the  following  are  always  a  safe  guide  :  — 

1.  Apply  in  the  manure  the  full  quantity  of  the  different 
ash  ingredients  of  the  crops  that  will  he  produced  hefore 
manure  will  he  applied  again. 

2.  Procure  from  abroad  manure  containing  the  full 
quantity  of  the  different  ash  ingredients  of  all  produce  sold 
from  the  farm^  am.d  allow  none  to  he  wasted  at  home. 

A  close  adherence  to  these  two  rules,  accompanied  by 
good  cultivation,  and  the  draining  of  such  land  as  needs 
draining,  will  make  any  farmer  rich  who  exercises  ordi- 
nary judgment  and  prudence  in  the  management  of  his 
affairs. 

To  speak  with  scientific  accuracy,  it  is  not  necessary  to 
return  quite  all  that  the  crops  take  away. 

The  processes  by  which  soils  were  originally  formed  being 
still  in  operation,  there  is  a  constant  fresh  development  of 
plant-food  in  the  ground,  and  this  will,  in  greater  or  less 
degree,  compensate  for  the  loss  by  the  removal  of  crops. 

Practically,  however,  it  is  best  to  place  this  development 
of  fresh  matter  to  the  account  of  improvement,  and,  by 
making  up  the  full  amount  of  all  removals,  to  make  sure 
that  the  land  is  constantly  growing  better  instead  of  worse. 

As  want  of  space  forbids  a  more  full  discussion  of  the 


332  MAinjRES. 

established  theories  concerning  the  use  of  manure,  the  atten- 
tion of  the  reader  is  called  to  the  following : — 

Classification  and  description  of  jnoMures, 

Manures  naturally  divide  themselves  into  such  as  are  of 
mineral,  of  vegetable,  and  of  animal  origin. 

Mineral  manures  are  such  as  originate  from  various 
mineral  substances,  such  as  lime,  which  is  the  product  of 
limestone,  marble,  chalk,  or  marl,  after  the  carbonic  acid 
has  been  expelled  by  an  intense  heat ;  marls,  which  are 
composed  of  carbonate  of  lime,  mixed  with  clay,  sand,  or 
loam;  shell  sand,  calcareous  sand,  green  sand  marl,  gyp- 
sum, phosphate  of  lime,  salt,  and  salts  of  various  kinds, 
&c. 

Vegetable  manures  are  such  as  are  produced  from  de- 
composed vegetable  matters,  which  also  contain  some  of  the 
inorganic  or  mineral  substances. 

Animal  ma/nures  consist  chiefly  of  the  flesh,  blood,  bones, 
horns,  and  hair  of  sea  and  land  animals,  and  of  the  solid  and 
liquid  excrements  of  land  animals  and  birds,  and  also  con- 
tain some  of  the  inorganic  or  mineral  matters. 


A7ialysis  of  Fish  Guano. 

Water  expelled  by  212°  heat. .  8.06 

Sand 0.33 

OU 2.40 

Organic  Matter 50.72 

Super-Phosphate  of  Lime 9.85 

Sulphate  of  Lime,  Hydrated. . .  19.62 


Sulphate  of  Magnesia O.Vl 

"  Potash 2.05 

Soda 2.42 

Chloride  of  Sodium 1.12 

Sulphate  of  Ammonia. 2.72 

Dr.  Apjohn. 


MANURES. 


333 


50. 


11 


Analysis  of  Peruvian,  Gucmo, 

In  every  100  parts  there  are  of 

Organic  Matter,  containing  Nitrogen,  including  Urate  of  Ammonia,  and  J 
capable  of  affording  from  8  to  1*7  per  cent  of  Ammonia,  by  slow  >• 
change  in  the  soil ) 

Water .  . 

Phosphate  of  Lime 25 . 

Ammonia,  Phosphate  of  Magnesia,  Phosphate  of  Ammonia  and  Oxa-  )    ,  „ 
late  of  Ammonia,  containing  from  4  to  9  per  cent,  of  Ammonia ) 

Silicious  matter  from  the  crops  of  birds 1 . 

Dr.  Ure. 
Another  analysis. 

Water 13.09 

Organic  Matter,   containing  Ammonia 53.1'7 

Common  Salt  and  Sulphate  of  Soda 4.63 

Carbonate  of  Lime 4.18 

Phosphate  of  Lime  and  Magnesia 23,54 

Silicious  Matter  or  Sand 1.39 

Johnston. 

Professor  S.  W.  Johnson  publishes  the  following  table : — 
Analysis  of  Peruvian  Guano. 


Water 

Organic  Matter 

Ammonia,  potential.... 

"         actual 

Phosphoric   Acid   soluble 

in  water 

Phosphoric  Acid  insoluble 

in  water , 

Sand,  &c.,  insoluble  in  acids 
Phosphate  of  Lime,  ) 

equivalent  to  total  Y  A  v. 

Phosphoric  Acid .  ) 


66.32 

5.82 
8.93 

4.69 

10.05 
1.69 


65.18 
5.95 
9.08 

3.64 

10.50 
1.52 


21 .  28 


II. 


12.63 
52.27 

16.03 


15.19 


12.70 
51.46 

15.98 


14.08 


2.45    2.66 
31.69 


IIL 


68.00j68.70 
17.8618.85 


ly. 


59.46 
16.32 


Analysis  of  Bolivian  Guano. 

Water 6.91 

Organic  Matter  containing  Ammonia 55.52 

Common  Salt  and  Sulphate  of  Soda 6.31 

Carbonate  of  Lime '^-87 

Phosphate  of  Lime  and  Magnesia 25.68 

Silicious  Matter  or  Sand 1.71 

Johnston. 


334  MANURES. 

Note. — The  guano  of  the  Lobos  Islands  is  from  25  to  33 
per  cent,  less  valuable  than  the  above. 

How  to  select  a  good  article  of  guano. 

1.  The  drier  the  better — there  is  less  water  to  pay  for  and 
transport. 

2.  The  lighter  the  color  the  better — it  is  the  less  com- 
pletely dissolved. 

3.  If  it  has  not  a  strong  ammoniacal  smell,  it  ought  to 
give  off  such  a  smell  when  a  spoonful  of  it  is  mixed  with  a 
spoonful  of  slaked  lime  in  a  wine-glass. 

4.  When  put  into  a  tumbler  with  water  and  stirred  well, 
and  the  water  and  fine  matter  poured  off,  it  ought  to  leave 
but  little  sand  or  stones. 

5.  When  heated  to  redness  over  a  fire  or  bright  flame, 
until  the  animal  matter  is  burned  away,  the  ash  should 
nearly  all  dissolve  in  dilute  muriatic  acid. 

6.  In  looking  at  the  printed  analysis  (which  almost  all 
dealers  furnish),  see  that  the  per  cent,  of  water  is  small ; 
that  the  organic  matter  containing  ammonia  approaches  to 
50  or  60  per  cent. ;  that  the  phosphates  do  not  exceed  20  per 
cent.,  and  the  common  salt  and  sulphate  of  soda  do  not  ex- 
ceed 5  or  6  per  cent. — Johnston. 

How  to  Apply  Guano. — From  200  to  500  lbs.  per  acre  is 
a  proper  dressing,  the  largest  quantity  being  required  for  the 
more  sterile  soils.  Mix  it  tlioroughly  for  a  few  days  with 
five  times  its  bulk  of  vegetable  mould  or  loam  and  some 


MANURES.  335 

charcoal  or  gypsum,  after  breaking  the  himps  and  sifting  in 
alternate  layers.  Avoid  the  use  of  ashes  or  lime,  as  they 
tend  to  expel  the  ammonia.  Keep  it  under  cover,  beyond 
the  reach  of  water  or  rains,  until  used.  It  may  then  be 
scattered  broadcast  upon  meadows  or  grain,  or  placed  near 
the  seeds  or  young  plants  in  the  hill. 

Analysis  of  hone  {crushed)  manure. 
In  100  parts,  there  are  of 


Lime 55.5 

Phosphate  of  Magnesia 2. 

Soda  and  Common  Salt 2.5 


Carbonate  of  Lime 3.75 

Fluoride  of  Calcium 3. 

Gelatine  (the  substance  of  liorn)  33.25 


Table,  showing  tlie  comparative  value  of  anhnal  manures^ 
with  farm-yard  manitre  as  the  standard. 
100  lbs.  farm-yard  manure  is  equal  to 

125  lbs.  solid  excrements  of  the  cow. 


73     ' 

.1 

91     ' 

'  liquid 

16     ' 

1          u 

98     ' 

'  mixed 

54     ' 

1      (i 

36     ' 

(      (( 

64     ' 

(      (( 

cow. 

3  lbs. 

Dry  Flesh. 

horse. 

5     " 

Pigeon's  Dung. 

cow. 

15     " 

Liquid  Blood. 

horse. 

4     " 

Dry  Blood. 

cow. 

3     " 

Feathers. 

horse. 

3     " 

Cow  Hair. 

sheep. 

3     " 

Horn  Shavings. 

pig- 

H  " 

Dry  Woollen  Rags. 

Johnston. 

Note. — The  most  powerful  substances  in  the  above  table, 
viz.,  dry  woollen  rags,  horn  shavings,  cow  hair,  feathers,  &c., 
hold  little  or  no  water,  and  contain  the  fertilizing  elements 
of  the  others  in  very  compact  forms.  They  show  less  im- 
'mediate  sensible  effect  upon  the  crop  than  the  others,  because, 
being  so  dry  and  compact,  they  are  long  decomposing,  but 
continue  to  evolve  fertilizing  matter  long  after  the  softer  and 
more  fluid  manures  have  spent  their  force. 


336 


MANURES. 


Decomposed  vegetables  as  manure. 

The  charaGteristic  distinction  between  animal  and  vege- 
table manures  lies  in  the  fact  of  the  former  containing  a 
much  larger  proportion  of  nitrogen  than  the  latter. 

There  are  two  grounds  upon  which  the  relative  values  of 
different  vegetable  substances  as  manures  may  be  estimated. 
First ^  from  the  quantity  and  kind  of  inorganic  matter  they 
contain.  Second,  from  the  proportion  of  nitrogen  present 
in  each. 

Table,  showing  the  relative  values  of  decomposed  vegetables 
as  ma/nures,  from,  the  inorganic  matter  they  contain. 

Inorganic  Matter, 
lbs.  lbs. 


1  ton 

Wheat  Straw  ma 

Oat 

Hay 

Barley       " 

Pea 

Bean         " 

Eye 

Dry  Potato-tops 

Dry  Turnip-tops 

Rape  Cake 

Malt  Dust 

Dried  Seaweed 

.100  to  180 
.100  to  200 
.100  to  120 
.100  to  110 
.100  to  130 
.   50  to  100 
.400 
.370 
.120 
.180 
.560 
Johnston. 


Table,  showing  the  relative  values  of  decomposed  vegetables 
as  manures,  from  the  nitrogen  they  contain. 
100  lbs.  of  farm-yard  manure  is  equal  to 


130  lbs.  Wheat  Straw  Manure. 


150 

'     Oat 

180 

'    Barley     " 

85 

'    B'kwh't  " 

45 

'    Pea 

50 

'    Wheat  Chaff 

80 

'    Green  Grass 

75 

'    Potato  Tops 

80  lbs.  Fresh  Seaweed          Ms 

20 

'     Dried 

26 

'    Bran  of  Wheat  or  Corn 

13 

'     Malt  Dust 

8 

'    Rape  Cake 

250 

'    Pine  Sawdust 

180 

'    Oak 

25 

'    Coal  Soot 

Manure. 


MANURES.  337 

Notes. — The  immediate  effect  of  vegetable  manures  in 
hastening  the  growth  of  plants  is  dependent,  in  a  great 
measure,  upon  the  quantity  of  nitrogen  they  contain,  which 
is  given  off  chiefly  in  the  form  of  ammonia  during  their 
decay  in  the  soil,  and  may  be  nearly  exhausted  in  a  single 
season. 

Their  p&rmanent  effect  and  value  is  to  be  estimated  by 
the  quantity  and  quality  of  inorganic  matter  they  contain, 
or  ash  they  leave  when  burned,  and  may  not  be  exhausted 
for  several  years. 

Besides  inorganic  matters  and  nitrogen,  there  are  other 
ingredients  in  vegetable  manures  which  are  necessary  to  the 
sustenance  and  growth  of  plants. 

Each  of  the  elements  present  in  decayed  or  decaying  plants 
is  capable  either  of  ministering  to,  or  preparing  food  for  such 
as  are  still  alive. 

All  refuse  vegetable  or  animal  matter  on  a  farm,  such  as 
straw,  leaves,  vegetable  tops,  chips,  sawdust,  ashes,  dead 
animals,  bones,  horns,  hoofs,  entrails,  &c.,  &c.,  should  be 
carefully  saved  and  composted,  or  otherwise  made  into 
manure  for  the  use  of  the  farm. 

Analysis  of  a  TnoMwre  heap  in  the  conditimi  usually  ap- 
plied to  the  field. 


Fresh. 

Water 64.96 

Organic  Matter 24.71 

Inorganic  Salts 10.33 


Dried  at  212«». 

Carbon 37.40 

Hydrogen 5.27 

Oxygen 25.52 

Nitrogen 1.76 

Ashes  (inorganic  matter) 30.05 


15 


338 


MANURES. 


Inorganic  'matters. 

Soluble  in  Muriatic  Add. 

Smca 27.01 

Phosphate  of  Lime 7.11 

"  Magnesia. 2.26 

"  Iron 4.68 

Carbonate  of  Lime.    .......     9.34 

"  Magnesia 1.63 

Sand 30.99 

Carbon 83 

Alkali  and  loss 3.14 

86.99 


Soluble  in  Water. 

Potash 3.22 

Soda 2.73 

Lime 0.34 

Magnesia 0.26 

Sulphuric  Acid 3.27 

Chlorine.... 3.15 

Silica f 0.04 

13.01 
86.99 

Richardson.  lOO.ou 


Analysis  of  other  sjpeGimiens  of  fresh  farm-ya/rd 

manures. 

Farm  yard  Manure 
From  Kent. 

Farm-yard  Manure 
From  Surrey. 

Per  centage  of  Ash 

9.2 

9.6 

Silica           .                  

7U.79 
3.32 
0.92 
6.90 
0.56 
1.43 
2.04 
1.53 
1.89 
1.58 
trace 

90.96 

71.32 

Potash 

5.14 

Soda       

1.68 

Lime 

12.32 

0.82 

Common  Salt 

1.22 

Phosphate  of  Iron ..•• 

2.03 

' '              Alumina    .    ...• 

2.54 

1.67 

Phosphoric  Acid ••• 

1.27 

Manganese  . . . .  , 

99.91 

Allen  Sf  Oreenhill. 


Composition  of  fresh  farm-yard  manure  (composed  of 
horse,  pig,  and  cow  dung,  about  fourteen  days  old). 
Analysis  made  November  3,  1854,  by  Dr.  Augustus 
Yoelcker,  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  Royal  Agricul- 
tural College,  Cirencester,  England  : — 


MANURES.  339 

Water ,    66.17 

*  Soluble  organic  matter 2.48 

Soluble  inorganic  matter  (ash) — 

Soluble  silica  (silicic  acid) 237 

Phosphate  of  lime 299 

Lime 066 

Magnesia Oil 

Potash 573 

Chloride  of  sodium 030 

Carbonic  acid  and  loss 218 

1.54 

f  Insoluble  organic  matter 25.76 

Insoluble  inorganic  matter  (ash) — 

Soluble  silica      (  ^.^.^.^  ^^.^  )    967 

Insoluble  silica  (  f    561 

Oxide  of  iron,  alumina,  with  phosphates.     .596 
(Containing  phosphoric  acid,  .178) 
(Equal  to  bone  earth,  .386) 

Lime 1.120 

Magnesia 143 

Potash 099 

Soda 019 

Sulphuric  acid 061 

Carbonic  acid  and  loss 484 

4.05 

100.00 

*  Containing  nitrogen 149 

Equal  to  ammonia .181 

■f  Containing  nitrogen 494 

Equal  to  ammonia -599 

The  whole  manure  contains  ammonia  in  a  free  state 034 

"  •'  "  «  in  the  form  of  salts 088 


340  MANURES. 

According  to  this  analysis  one  ton  (2000  lbs.)  farm-yard 
manure  contains — 

Soluble  silica  (silicic  acid) 24     lbs. 

Ammonia  (actual  or  potential). lof 

Phosphate  of  lime ^^ro 

Lime ^^tV 

Magnesia S^ 

Potash 13J 

Soda If 

Common  salt -j^ 

Sulphuric  acid 2J 

Water 1323f 

Woody  fibre,  &c 579 

Of  course  no  two  samples  of  farm-yard  manure  are  ex- 
actly of  the  same  composition.  That  analyzed  by  Dr. 
Yoelcker  was  selected  with  much  care,  as  representing  a 
fair  average. 

GREEN   SAND   MARL    (oF   NEW   JERSEY). 

Protoxide  of  iron 15.5 

Alumina 6.9 

Lime 5.3 

Magnesia 1.6 

Potash 4.8 

Soluble  silica 32.4 

Insoluble  silica  and  sand 19.8 

Sulphuric  acid 6 

Phosphoric  acid 1-3 

Water 8.0 

Carbonic  acid,  &c ^-^ 

100.0 


MANTJEES.  341 

This  is  an  average  of  three  analyses  copied  from  Prof. 

Geo.   H.   Cook's  Eeport  of  the  Geology  of  New  Jersey. 

According  to  this  estimate  one  ton  (2000  lbs.)  of  green 

sand  marl  contains — 

Lime 106  lbs. 

Maocnesia 32    " 


Potash 


Soluble  silicic  acid.   648  lbs. 

Sulphuric  acid 12    " 

Phosphoric  acid* ...     26    " 


To  give  a  better  idea  of  the  formation  and  composition 
of  stable  manure,  the  following  is  copied  from  "  Waring's 
Elements  of  Agriculture  "  : — 

"digestion  and  its  prodijcts. 
"  Let  us  suppose  that  we  have  a  fall-grown  ox,  which  is 
not  increasing  in  any  of  his  parts,  but  only  consumes  food 
to  keep  up  his  respiration,  and  to  supply  the  natural  wastes 
of  his  body.  To  this  ox  we  will  feed  a  ton  of  hay  which 
contains  organic  matter,  with  and  without  nitrogen,  and 
soluble  and  insoluble  earthy  substances.  Now  let  us  try 
to  follow  the  food  through  its  changes  in  the  animal,  and 
see  what  becomes  of  it.  Liebig  compares  the  consumption 
of  food  by  animals  to  the  imperfect  burning  of  wood  in  a 
stove,  where  a  portion  of  the  fuel  is  resolved  into  gases 
and  ashes  (that  is,  it  is  completely  burned),  and  another 
portion,  which  is  not  thoroughly  burned,  passes  off  as  soot. 
In  the  animal  action  in  question,  the  food  undergoes 
changes  which  are  similar  to  this  burning  of  wood.  A 
part  of  the  food  is  digested  and  taken  up  by  the  blood, 

*  Equal  to  phosphate  of  lime  56^  lbs. 


342 


MANURES. 


while  another  portion  remains  undigested,  and  passes  the 
bowels  as  solid  dung — corresponding  to  the  soot  of  combus- 
tion. This  part  of  the  dung,  then,  we  see  is  merely  so 
much  of  the  food  as  passes  through  the  system  without 
being  materially  changed.  Its  nature  is  easily  understood. 
It  contains  organic  and  mineral  matters  in  nearly  the  con- 
dition in  which  they  existed  in  the  hay.  They  have  been 
rendered  finer  and  softer,  but  their  chemical  character 
(their  composition)  is  not  materially  altered.  The  dung 
also  contains  small  quantities  of  nitrogenous  matter,  which 
has  leaked  out,  as  it  were,  from  the  stomach  and  intestines. 
The  digested  food,  however,  undergoes  further  changes 
which  affect  its  character,  and  it  escapes  from  the  body  in 
three  ways — i.  €.,  through  the  lungs  and  skin,  through  the 
bladder,  and  through  the  bowels.  It  will  be  recollected 
from  the  first  section  of  this  book,  p.  20,  that  the  carbon  in 
the  blood  of  animals  unites  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air 
drawn  into  the  lungs,  and  is  thrown  off  in  the  breath  as 
carbonic  acid.  The  hydrogen  and  oxygen  unite  to  form 
a  part  of  the  water  which  constitutes  the  moisture  of  the 
breath. 

"  That  portion  of  the  atmospheric  part  of  the  hay  which 
has  been  taken  up  by  the  blood  of  the  ox,  and  which  does 
not  contain  nitrogen,  is  emitted  through  the  lungs.  It  con- 
sists, as  will  be  recollected,  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxy- 
gen, and  these  assume,  in  respiration,  the  forjn  of  carbonic 
acid  and  water. 


MAi^UKES.  343 

"  The  atmospheric  matter  of  the  digested  hay,  in  the 
blood,  which  does  contain  nitrogen,  goes  to  the  bladder^ 
where  it  assumes  the  form  of  urea — a  constituent  of  urine 
or  liquid  manure. 

"  We  have  now  disposed  of  the  imperfectly  digested  food 
(the  dung),  and  of  the  atmospheric  matter  which  was  taken 
up  by  the  blood.  All  that  remains  to  be  examined  is  the 
earthy  matter  in  the  blood,  which  would  have  become  ashes 
if  the  hay  had  been  burned.  The  readily  soluble  part  of 
this  earthy  matter  passes  into  the  bladder,  and  forms  the 
earthy  parts  of  urine.  The  more  insoluble  part  passes  the 
bowels,  in  connection  with  the  dung. 

"  If  any  of  the  food  taken  up  by  the  blood  is  not  returned 
as  above  stated,  it  goes  to  form  fat,  muscle,  hair,  bones,  or 
some  other  part  of  the  animal;  and  as  he  is  not  growing 
(not  increasing  in  weight),  an  equivalent  amount  of  the 
body  of  the  animal  goes  to  the  manure  to  take  the  place  of 
the  part  retained.* 

"  We  now  have  our  subject  in  a  form  to  be  readily  under- 
stood. We  learn  that  when  food  is  given  to  animals  it  is 
not  pttt  out  of  existence,  but  is  merely  changed  in  form  / 
and  that  in  the  impurities  of  the  breath  we  have  a  large 
portion  of  those  parts  of  tlie  food  which  plants  obtain  from 
air  and  from  water ;  while  the  solid  and  liquid  excrements 

*  This  account  of  digestion  is  not,  perhaps,  strictly  accurate  in  a  physiological 
point  of  view,  but  it  is  sufficiently  so  to  give  an  elementary  understanding  of 
the  character  of  excrement  as  manure. 


34:4  MANURES. 

contain  all  that  was  taken  by  the  plants  from  the  soil  and 
from  manures. 

"  The  Solid  Dung  contains  the  undigested  parts  of  the 
food,  the  more  insoluble  parts  of  the  ash,  and  the  nitro- 
genous matters  which  have  escaped  from  the  digestive 
organs. 

"  The  Liquid  Manure  contains  the  nitrogenous  parts  of 
the  digested  food,  and  the  soluble  parts  of  the  ash. 

"  The  Breath  contains  those  parts  of  the  fully  digested 
food  which  contain  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  but  no 
nitrogen^  or  at  least  a  very  inconsiderable  quantity  of  it." 

LIQUID    MANURE. 

We  believe  there  is  no  system  of  enriching  the  land  for 
small  gardens,  with  a  view  to  perfection  of  crops,  so  triily 
economical  and  so  easily  available  as  that  of  using  liquid 
manure.  We  occasionally  hear  of  a  gardener,  or  an  ama- 
teur grower  of  some  special  plant  or  crop,  that  has  practised 
enriching  with  liquids,  but  it  is  only  occasionally  ;  yet  the 
result  of  every  record  is  in  its  favor,  and  a  searching  inquiry 
into  any  extra  production  of  fruit,  flower,  or  plant  almost 
invariably  gives  watering  with  liquid  manure  as  the  cause. 
There  is  in  almost  every  family  a  waste  of  liquids,  which  usu- 
ally go  into  the  sewer  or  drain,  or  possibly  upon  the  road, 
where  they  are  of  no  avail,  but  if  saved  by  being  conduct- 
ed to  a  tank,  would  enrich  the  entire  garden  spot  of  vege- 


MANURES.  345 

tables,  small  fruits,  furnisli  stimulus  to  the  rose  and  other 
flower  borders,  and  keep  the  grass-plot  green  and  fresh  even 
in  the  hottest  and  driest  weather  of  midsummer.  The  use 
of  a  little  plaster  (gypsum)  occasionally,  thrown  in  and 
around  the  tank,  would  always  keep  it  sweet  and  clean.  By 
the  use  and  practice  of  liquid  manuring  no  delay  need  ever 
occur  in  planting-time  because  of  the  manure  not  being  on 
hand,  or  not  being  in  a  sufficiently  rotted  condition ;  but 
planting  could  proceed,  and  the  application  of  manure  be 
made  at  leisure. — Horticulturist, 
Value  of  liquid  manures. 

The  urine  voided  from  a  cow  during  one  year  contains 
900  lbs.  solid  matter,  and  compared  with  Peruvian  guano 
at  $60  per  ton  is  worth  $20.  It  will  manure  \\  acres  of 
land,  and  is  more  valuable  than  its  dung,  in  the  ratio,  by 
bulk,  of  7  to  6,  and  in  intrinsic  value  as  2  to  1. — Dana. 

The  Urine  of  the  Cow  contains  of  water 92.6  per  cent. 

"  "       Horse       "  "     94.         " 

"  "       Sheep       "  "     96.         " 

"  ''       Hog         "  *'     92.6       " 

"  "       Human    "  "     93.3       " 

The  remainder  is  composed  of  salts  and  rich  food  for  vegetables. — Sprengel. 

Poudrette  and  Urate. 

Poudrette  is  the  name  given  to  the  human  excrement 
after  being  mixed  with  charcoal  dust  or  charred  peat,  to 
disinfect  it  of  its  effluvia,  and  when  dried  becomes  con- 
venient for  use  or  transportation. 

Urate  is  the  name  given  to  urine  after  mixing  with  it  \ 

15* 


346 


MANURES. 


or  -1-  of  its  weight  of  ground  gypsum,  and  allowing  it  to 
stand  several  days.  The  urine  combines  with  a  portion 
of  the  ammonia,  after  which  the  liquid  is  poured  off  an"a 
the  remainder  dried. — Allen. 

Analysis  of  night  soil. 

The  excrement  of  a  healthy  man  yielded  in  1000  parts — 


Water 733. 

Albumen 9. 

Bile 9. 


Mucilage,  fat,  and  animal  matter .   1 67. 

Saline  matters 12. 

Undecomposed  food TO. 


Man's  urine  yielded  in  1000  parts — 


Water 933. 

Urea 30.1 

Uric  acid 1 . 

Free  acetic   acid,  lactate  of  \ 

ammonia,  and  animal  mat-  >■  17.1 

ter ) 

Mucus  of  the  bladder 3.3 

Sulphate  of  potash 3. 1 

"           soda 3.2 


Phosphate  of  ammonia 

"  soda ..... 

Sal  ammoniac 

Common  salt 

Phosphate  of  lime  and  magne- 
sia, with  a  trace  of  silica 
and  fluoride  of  calcium  — 


1.6 
2.9 
1.5 

4.5 

1.1 


1000. 

Berzelius. 


Urea  is  a  solid  product  of  urine,  and  gives  in  100  parts — 

Carbon 19.99  I  Hydrogen 6.65 

Oxygen 26.63  |  Nitrogen 46  65 

Prout. 


THE   DEY  EARTH  SYSTEM. 

It  has  long  been  a  difficult  problem  to  decide  in  what 
way  to  dispose  of  human  excrement  so  as  to  make  use  of  its 
invaluable  ingredients  as  manure,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
to  a^'oid  the  ofiensiveness  which  attends  its  management  in 
China  and  Japan,  and  in  all  countries  where  it  is  habitually 
applied  to  the  soil. 

This  problem  has  at  last  found  a  satisfactory  solution  in 
the  invention  of  the  Rev.  Henry  Moule,  Yicar  of  Fording- 
ton,  Dorsetshire,  England. 

This  invention  is  based  on  the  power  of  common  soil, 
when  dried  and  sifted,  to  absorb,  not  only  the  moisture  of 
human  excrement,  but  its  odor  as  well. 

This  power  of  absorbing  odors  is  due  to  both  the  clay 
and  the  decomposed  organic  matter  in  the  soil.  It  was 
first  discovered,  or  at  least  first  satisfactorily  explained,  by 
Prof.  Way,  chemist  to  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of 
England,  whose  interesting  experiments  on  the  subject  are 
detailed  in  the  Society's  Journal. 

It  is  odd  that  this  easy  means  of  arresting  the  offensive 
exhalations  of  human  excrement  was  not  long  ago  generally 
adopted.  We  have  a  practical  illustration  of  this  use  of 
earth  in  the  case  of  animals  of  the  feline  race,  whose  de- 
jections are  extremely  offensive.  They  turn  and  carefully 
cover  these  with  earth.  In  the  adhesion  of  the  world  to 
many  ot  the  tenets  of  the  Mosaic  law,  it  is  strange  that  we 
have  overlooked  the  sound  advice  given  in  the  12th  and 


348  MANURES THE    DRY    EARTH    SYSTEM. 

13th  verses  of  the  xxiii.  chap,  of  Deut.,  where  we  read, 
"  Thou  shalt  have  a  place  also  without  the  camp  whither 
thou  shalt  go  forth  abroad ;  and  thou  shalt  have  a  paddle 
upon  thy  weapon  ;  and  it  shall  be  when  thou  shalt  ease  thy- 
self abroad,  thou  shalt  dig  therewith  and  shalt  turn  back 
and  cover  that  which  conieth  from  thee." 

Mr.  Moule's  invention  is  susceptible  of  many  modifications. 
The  apparatus  which  he  has  devised,  and  which  is  coming 
into  quite  general  use  in  England,  especially  in  detached 
country  houses  and  cottages,  where  there  is  no  supply  of 
water  for  water-closets,  consists  of  a  hopper-shaped  reservoir 
behind  and  above  the  ordinary  water-closet  seatf  or  holding 
the  supply  of  dry  earth, — this  forms  a  back ;  a  water-tight 
vessel  or  vault  under  the  seat ;  and  a  mechanical  arrangement 
for  measuring  out  the  proper  quantity  of  earth  (about  a  pint 
and  a  half)  and  throwing  it  forward  u]3on  the  evacuation, 
which  it  entirely  covers  while  it  absorbs  all  the  moisture. 

This  apparatus  is  simple,  inexpensive,  not  liable  to  get 
out  of  order,  and  cannot  be  obstructed  by  frost. 

A  modification  of  the  same,  still  more  simple,  cheap,  and 
equally  eifective,  though  much  less  convenient,  consists  of  a 
tub  or  box  (filled  with  dry  earth)  at  the  side  of  the  seat,  and 
a  common  tin  scoop  with  which  to  throw  the  earth  upon  the 
deposit.  This  plan  is  being  generally  adopted  in  the  prisons 
and  workhouses  of  England  and  the  British  colonies. 

In  fact,  any  vessel  containing  two  inches  or  more  of 
sifted,  dry  earth,  and  a  second  vessel  containing  a  supply 


MANURES — THE   DRY    EARTH    SYSTEM.  349 

of  earth  and  a  scoop  or  cup  with  which  to  handle  it,  will 
answer  a  good  purpose  on  emergency,  and  will  enable  the 
poorest  person  not  merely  to  mitigate  but  to  absolutely 
overcome  the  most  offensive  accompaniment  of  sickness.* 

While  this  invention  offers  relief  from  untold  misery  and 
annoyance  to  all  w^ho  cannot  conveniently  establish  water- 
closets  in  their  houses,  its  agricultural  importance  makes  it 
especially  interesting  to  farmers. 

It  is  a  fact  too  well  known  to  need  discussion  in  our  lim- 
ited space,  that  of  all  manures  none  are  at  once  so  powerful 
and  so  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  all  crops  as  "  night- 
soil,"  or  human  excrement,  though  its  highly  offensive 
character  has  generally  prevented  its  use,  and  has  associated 
with  it  an  idea  of  degradation.  In  most  parts  of  the  coun- 
try farm-hands  would  leave  their  places  rather  than  to  have 
anything  to  do  with  the  stuff;  and  where  it  is  commonly 
used,  it  is  made  a  nuisance  to  wide  neighborhoods. 

By  the  aid  of  the  dry  earth  system  every  real  and  fan- 
cied objection  to  its  use  is  done  away  with.  The  mixed 
earth  and  "  soil,"  when  dried  and  pulverized,  are  absolutely 
without  other  smell  than  that  of  freshly  turned  earth  ;  and, 
although  every  atom  of  fertilizing  matter  has  been  retained 
in  a  most  available  form,  there  is  nothing  by  w^hich,  from 
either  appearance  or  odor,  its  character  could  be  suspected. 

The  most  remarkable  part  of  the  whole  matter  is,  that 

*  For  more  particular  information  on  this  subject,  the  reader  is  referred  to  a 
pamphlet  entitled  "  Earth  Closets,  how  to  make  and  how  to  use  them,"  pub- 
lished by  the  N.  Y.  Tribune  Association. 


350 


MANURES THE    DRY    EARTH    SYSTEM. 


when  the  ordure  is  once  decomposed  and  (by  sifting)  inti- 
mately mixed  with  the  earth,  it  has  the  same  quality  as  any 
other  decomposed  organic  matter,  i.  e.^  it  acts  as  a  deodori- 
zer. Consequently,  the  same  earth  (by  drying  and  sifting) 
may  be  used  over  and  over  again,  always  (at  least  up  to  the 
eighth  or  tenth  time  of  using)  being  inodorous  and  as  good 
a  disinfectant  as  fresh  earth  ;  therefore  the  quantity  of  earth 
which  it  is  necessary  to  prepare  and  store  need  not  be  very 
large,  and  it  may  be  made  so  rich  as  to  be  equal  to  Peru- 
vian guano  in  its  effect  on  vegetation. 

In  short,  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  who  has  had  per- 
sonal experience  in  the  use  of  the  apparatus,  in  '^  sickness 
and  in  health,''  the  adoption  of  the  dry  earth  system  is 
"  the  coming:  reform." 

Table,  showing  the  comparative  increase  of  corn  hy  different 
fertilizers. 


QUANTITY   OF   FERTILIZER. 


No  Manure 

500  lbs  Superphosphate  of  Lime 

3,690   "     Guano 

4  300  "     Superphosphate  Lime  &  640  lbs.  Guano 
6; 320  "    Guano  and  640  lbs.  dissolved  Bones 
6 1 1040  **     Guano  &  400  lbs.  Superphosphate  Lime 

7!  16  loads  Stable  Manure .      .. 

8|32    "  '^ 

' '    &  200  bus.  leached  Ashes . . 
"    &  640  lbs.  Super  P  Lime. . 
'•     &  320  lbs  Guano  &  1320  ibs 
I                                     Superphosphate  Lime    . 
12 1  Hog  manure  from  108  bus.  corn 


9il6 
10116 
11132 


5  .3 


28 

46 

50A 

58^ 

51 

74f 

35| 

42| 

44 

49^ 

60 

43 


18 
22J 
30 
23 

4Gf 


$ 

12  50 
19  00 
25  10 
18  40 
38  60 
6  00 


14|!32  00 
12  00"- 
17  80« 

16  80« 

16  20 


bus 


qrts. 

14 

6 

6| 
8 
6f 
15 
14f 
22| 
28 


30 


Only  the  mcrease  over  the  experiments  T  and  8  with  stable  manure  alone. 


MANURES.  351 

All  tables  showing  the  comparative  effect  of  different 
manures  are  of  very  problematical  value.  There  are  so 
many  circumstances  and  conditions  of  soil,  climate,  expo- 
sure, moisture,  previous  treatment  of  the  land,  &c.,  &c. — 
all  of  which  affect,  more  or  less  strongly,  the  amount  of  the 
crop — that  it  is  never  possible  (in  the  light  of  our  still 
imperfect  knowledge  concerning  the  growth  of  plants,  and 
their  relations  to  the  soil)  to  decide  how  far  any  increase  or 
decrease  may  be  due  to  the  manure  used,  and  how  far  to 
other  causes. 

Table,  showing  the  effect  produced  upon  the  quantity  of  the 
crop  ly  equcd  quantities  of  different  manures  applied  to 
the  same  soil^  sown  with  an  equal  quantity  of  the  same 

seed. 

Keturn  in  bushels  from  each  bushel  of  seed. 
Manure  applied.  \Vheat.      Barlej'.  Oats.  Rye. 

Blood 14  16  12J  14 

Night-soil 13  14i  13^ 

Sheep-dung 12  16  14  13 

Horse-dung 10  13  14  11 

Pigeon-dung 10  12  9 

Cow-dung 7  11  16  9 

Yeo:etable  manure 3  7  13  6 

Without  manure ...  4           5  4 

Moisture  absorbed  by  different  manures. 

1000  parts  horse-dung,  dried  in  a  temperature  of  100° 
Fahrenheit,  absorbed  by  exposure  to  the  air  at  a 
temperature  of  62°  Fahrenheit,   moisture,  parts  145 

1000  parts  cow-dung,  under  same  circumstances,       ''     130 


352 

MANURES. 

1000  parts 

pig-dung,  under  the  same  circumstances,parts  120        | 

u 

sheep-dung,    "         " 

a 

ii 

81 

u 

pigeon-dung, "         " 

'• 

ii 

50 

u 

rich  alluvial  soil,     '* 

u 

ii 

14 

u 

fresh  tanners'  bark, " 

u 

a 

115 

(.(. 

putrified         "         " 

a 

ii 

145 

ii 

refuse  marine  salt,  " 

a 

•  i 

49J 

ii 

soot,                          " 

a 

a 

36 

ii 

burnt  claj,               " 

a 

i< 

29 

ii 

coal  ashes,                " 

ii 

(« 

14 

ii 

lime,                          " 

ii 

-' 

11 

ii 

sediment  from  salt-pans. 

a 

(( 

10 

ii 

crushed  rock-salt, 

a- 

ii 

10 

ii 

gjpsum. 

a 

ii 

9 

ii 

chalk. 

a 

ii 

4 

Table,  showing  the  nuinber  of  loads 

of  manure  and  the      1 

number 

of  heajys  to  each  load  required- 

to  each  acre,  the      | 

heaps  at  given  distances  apart. 

5§* 

NUMBER   OF   HEAPS    IN    A 

LOAD. 

1 

2        1     3       1      4     1      5      1      6 

7 

8    1      9    , 

10 

3 

538 

269 

179 

134 

1U8 

89i 

77 

67 

60 

54 

3i 

395 

168 

132 

99 

79 

66 

66J 

49  i 

44 

39^ 

4 

203 

151 

101 

75^ 

60^ 

60i 

43| 

37| 

331 

30i 

^ 

239 

120 

79^ 

60 

47| 

39| 

34i 

30 

26i 

24 

5 

194 

97 

64J 

48^ 

38| 

32^ 
26f 

27| 

24^ 

2H 

19J 

^ 

160 

80 

53^ 

40 

32 

22f 

20 

17| 

16 

6 

131 

67 

44| 

33J 

281 
24| 

27 

22i 

19i 

16| 

15 

13J 

6i 

115 

67i 

381 

23 

19 

16J 

14i 

12| 

11? 

7 

99 

49i 

33 

19| 

161 

14 

12^ 

11 

10 

7i 

86 

43 

28| 

2^ 

17i 

14^ 

12i 

lOf 

H 

8* 

8 

75J 

37| 

25i 

19 

15f 

12A 
Hi 

10| 

H 

8 

7i 

8J 

67 

33^ 

22^ 

]6f 

13* 

9i 

H 

7 

6| 

9 

60 

30 

20 

15 

12 

10 

8i 

7  • 

6| 

6 

H 

53^ 

26t 

18 

13^ 

10| 

9 

7| 

6 

6 

b\ 

10 

48i 

24i 

16^ 

12 

n 

8 

7 

6 

H 

4| 

'1 

MANURES. 


353 


Explanation. — In  the  left  hand  column  are  placed  the  dis- 
tances of  the  rows  and  the  heaps  in  each  row  {i.  e.,  the  dis- 
tances between  the  heaps  in  each  direction),  and  at  the  top 
of  the  columns  will  be  noticed  the  number  of  heaps  intended 
to  be  made  of  each  load;  the  point  where  the  two  meet 
gives  the  number  of  loads  per  acre  which  will  be  required 
for  that  purpose. 

Example  1. — Required  the  number  of  loads  necessary  to 
manure  an  acre,  dividing  each  load  into  six  heaps,  and  pla- 
cing them  4|-  yards  apart  ? 

Solution. — In  the  left  hand  column  find  4|-  (the  distance 
of  the  heaps  apart),  and  opposite  it  to  the  right,  under  6 
(the  number  of  heaps  in  each  load),  will  be  found  39f. 
Ans. 

ExA^iPLE  2. — A  farmer  has  a  field  containing  5^  acres, 
over  which  he  wishes  to  spread  82  loads  of  manure.  Now, 
82  divided  by  5 J  gives  15  loads  per  acre,  and  by  referring 
to  the  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  desired  object  can  be  at- 
tained by  making  4  heaps  of  each  load,  and  placing  them  9 
yards  apart,  or  by  9  heaps  at  6  yards  apart,  as  may  be 
thought  most  advisable. 

Notes. — A  cubic  foot  of  half- rotten  stable  manure  will 
weigh  56  lbs. ;  if  coarse  or  dry,  48  lbs. 

A  load  of  manure  is  about  36  cubic  feet,  and  of  the  first 
quality  will  weigh  2016  lbs. ;  of  the  second,  1728  lbs. 
Eight  loads  of  the  first  kind  spread  over  an  acre  will  give 


354  AKTIFICIAL    MANURES. 

108  lbs.  to  each  square  rod,  and  about  3^  lbs.  to  each  square 
yard. 

Five  loads  will  give  63  lbs.  to  each  square  rod. 

To  find  the  number  of  loads  of  manure  required  to  the 
acre^  for  a  given  number  of  lbs.  j)er  square  foot. 

Rule. — Multiply  43560  (the  number  of  square  feet  in  an 
acre)  by  the  number  of  lbs.  you  wish  to  spread  on  each 
square  foot,  and  divide  the  product  by  2016,  and  the  quo- 
tient will  be  the  number  of  loads  required. 

Example. — Required,  the  number  of  loads  of  manure  to 
cover  a  2-acre  field,  giving  2  lbs.  of  manure  to  each  square 
foot? 

Solution.— 43560  x  2  x  2  =  174240-^-2016  =  86.4  loads. 
Ans, 

ARTIFICIAL    MANURES. 

It  is  a  self-evident  truth  that  if  we  sell,  we  must  buy,  or 
we  must  be  content  to  see  our  stock  on  hand  reduced. 

This  principle  applies  nowhere  else  with  more  force  than 
to  the  stock  of  mineral  plant-food  in  the  soil.  This  is,  after 
all,  our  "  stock  in  trade  " — ammonia,  carbonic  acid,  and  wa- 
ter ; — the  sources  of  nearly  ninety-nine-hundredths  of  our 
crops  we  can  draw  from  the  floating  capital  of  the  world, 
and,  except  in  the  case  of  ammonia,  we  need  give  ourselves 
but  little  trouble  about  them.  With  the  mineral  matters, 
however,  the  case  is  very  different.     Some  of  them,  it  is  true, 


ARTIFICIAL   MANURES.  355 

are  so  abundant  and  so  universally  distributed  that  tbey  do 
not  demand  much  attention  ;  but  some  others,  on  the  other 
hand,  have  been  distributed  by  nature  with  so  sparing  a 
hand,  that  our  constant  care  should  be  given  to  keeping  our 
supply  of  them  undiminished.  They  exist  only  in  the  soil ; 
the  winds  cannot  waft  them  to  us,  nor  do  they  come,  as  am- 
monia does,  in  every  summer  shower.  They  are  the  hard 
currency  of  our  banking  system,  and  our  business  will  always 
be  limited  by  the  amount  we  have  in  our  vaults,  and  by  the 
promptness  with  which  we  make  good  their  loss  when  we 
have  put  them  in  circulation. 

This  fact  has  created  a  demand  for  artificial  manures, 
the  theory  of  whose  production  is,  that  the  phosphate  of  lime 
which  has  found  its  way  into  the  bones  of  animals,  and  has 
thus  become,  for  the  moment,  unavailable  to  the  farmer, 
shall  be  returned  by  some  process  which  shall  convert  refuse 
bones  into  manure,  or  that  it  shall  be  replaced  from  some 
other  source,  as  from  the  phosphatic  guanos  from  which 
superphosphate  of  lime  is  largely  made;  and  that  potash, 
lime,  &c.,  shall  be  collected,  in  the  form  of  ashes," &c.,  &c., 
and  returned  to  the  soil. 

If  all  the  artificial  manures  that  have  been  put  into  the 
market  had  been  honestly  made,  the  demand  for  them  would 
have  been  much  greater  even  than  it  now  is. 

But  the  fact  that  their  composition  can  be  ascertained 
only  by  careful  chemical  analysis,  which  farmers  are  incom- 
petent to  make,  has  led  to  no  end  of  fraud,  and  one  never 


356  ARTIFICIAL    MANURES. 

knows,  in  purchasing  a  ton  of  superphosphate,  poudrette, 
guano,  &c.,  whether  he  is  or  is  not  paying  for  half  a  ton  of 
coal-ashes  or  other  worthless  dirt.  The  consequence  of  this 
has  been  that  many  farmers  have  bought  a  little  superphos- 
phate as  an  experiment,  have  found  no  beneficial  result  from 
its  use,  and  so  have  given  it  up  as  a  bad  job  and  pronounced 
the  whole  system  of  artificial  manuring  a  swindle.  The 
example  of  each  man  has  had  its  efiect  on  his  neighbors,  and 
there  is,  consequently,  a  wide-spread  belief  that  all  artificial 
manures  are  humbugs. 

At  the  same  time,  there  are  so  many  who  do  fully  under- 
stand the  value  of  these  fertilizers,  and  whose  land  absolutely 
needs  their  aid,  that  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  such  as 
are  of  established  good  quality  has  reached  enormous  pro- 
portions. 

On  farms  where  large  stocks  of  cattle  are  fed,  and  for  lands 
which  are  enriched  by  the  raising  of  clover  as  a  green  crop, 
the  necessity  for  the  use  of  foreign  manures  is  much  less 
than  where  the  crops  are  mainly  sold  off,  and  no  recupera- 
tive process  (such  as  the  use  of  green  crops)  is  adopted. 

There  is,  in  all  fertile  lands,  a  large  reserve  stock  of  min- 
eral plant-food  which  is  not  yet  in  a  proper  condition  to  be 
taken  up  by  roots,  and  if  the  cropping  is  not  too  severe — 
the  produce  being  mainly  consumed  at  home,  and  the  ma- 
nure economically  used,  or  the  frequent  use  of  green  crop 
manuring  being  resorted  to — the  gradual  development,  in 
an  available  form,  of  these  mineral  matters  will  maintain 


AKTIFICIAL    MANURES.  357 

the  land  in  a  fair  state  of  fertility  for  a  very  long  time,  and 
here  the  use  of  mineral  manures  is  less  obvious  than  in  other 
cases. 

It  is  a  fallacy,  however,  to  suppose  that  these  lands  do  not 
need  mineral  manuring.  By  the  system  pursued,  we  are 
simply  drawing  on  the  capital  stock,  and,  sooner  or  later,  we 
shall  touch  bottom.  It  all  looks  fair  enough  now,  but  at 
some  future  day  we  or  our  successors  must  pay  the  penalty 
of  our  improvidence  by  finding  that  the  land  will  no  longer 
produce  good  crops  without  the  use  of  more  purchased  ma- 
nure than  can  profitably  be  applied  to  them. 

The  only  safe  rule  (the  only  honest  course,  when  we  con- 
sider the  fact  that  we  are  only  life-tenants  of  our  farms,  and 
are  in  duty  bound  to  leave  them,  unimpaired  if  not  improved, 
to  those  who  are  to  come  after  us)  is  to  bring  back  on  to  the 
farm,  every  year,  as  much  of  the  more  valuable  elements  of 
vegetable  ashes  as  we  have  sold  off  from  it,  whether  in  meat 
milk,  grain,  or  hay.  In  this  way  only  can  we  be  sure  that 
our  land  and  our  crops  will  each  year  improve. 

The  great  deficiency  of  our  older  soils  is  in  the  items  of 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  (Lime  is  more  often  needed 
as  an  agent  for  the  development  of  matters  already  contained 
in  the  soil  than  as  a  direct  food  for  plants.) 

Wliile  ammonia  has  been  classed  among  the  non-essential 
elements  of  manure,  its  action  as  a  stimulant  is  so  remark- 
able that  it  is,  commercially  considered,  the  most  valuable 
of  all. 


358  AKTIFICIAL   MANURES. 

Professor  S.  W.  Johnson  of  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School, 
Yale  College — the  highest  authority  in  America — gives  the 
following  as  the  analysis  of  the  best  SujperjpJwsjphate  of  Lime 
that  ever  came  under  his  examination : — 

Analysis   of  Majpes^  Improved  Superphosphate  of  Lime. 
Mannfactiire  of  1852. 

Water 4.54 

Organic  and  volatile  matter 22.96 

Sand  and  matters  insoluble  in  acids 1.48 

Soluble  phosphoric  acid 10.65 

Insoluble        "             "   10.17 

Ammonia 2.78 

Phosphate  of  lime  equivalent  to  phosphoric  acid. .  . .  45.11 

The  following  is  also  from  Johnson : — 

Analysis  of  Coe's  Superphosphate.    Manufacture  of  1856. 

Water,  organic  and  volatile  matters 38.02 

Sand  and  matters  insoluble  in  acids 3.37 

Soluble  phosphoric  acid 3.84 

Insoluble        "            "   17.84 

Ammonia 3.04 

Phosphate  of  lime,  equivalent  to  phosphoric  acid . .  .  46.47 

Johnson  also  gives  the  following  analysis  of  hoTie-ash^  or 
the  residue  of  burnt  bones  : — 

Analysis  of  Deburg^s  Bone  Meal. 

Water 3.04 

Organic  and  volatile  matters,  mostly  charcoal 2.07 

Sand  and  insoluble  matters 11.19 


ARTIFICIAL   MANURES.  359 

Lime 42.17 

Phosphoric  Acid 35.42 

Carbonic         "     1.23 

Magnesia    and  sulphuric   acid,   with   undetermined 

matters 4.88 

100.00 

Also  the  following : — 

Analysis  of  Bone  Dust. 

Water , 8.75 

Organic  matter 27.25 

Sana 5.37 

Earthy  phosphates 45.32 

Carbonate  of  lime  and  loss 13.31 

100.00 
Ammonia 2.98 

Also  the  following : — 

Analysis  of  Fish  Guano,  or  the  refuse  of  Fish  Oil  Works. 

Water 9.67 

Organic  (animal)  matter ■ 67.78 

Sand 2.05 

Lime 3.76 

Soluble   phosphoric  acid ,  . . . .  3.38 

Insoluble         "  "    81 

Ammonia  yielded  by  animal  matter 8.36 

Purchasers  of  manures  will  find  the  following  table — taken 


360  ARTIFICIAL   MANURES. 

from  Jndd's  Agricultural  Annual  for  1868 — of  great  value, 
as  affording  a  good  general  guide  in  determining  the  value 
of  manure  by  the  use  of  an  analysis  : — 

Prices   of   Standard   Fertilizers,   and   a  Standard  for 

Prices. 

The  prices  of  some  of  the  standard  fertilizers  offered  in 
the  New  York  market  simply  as  such,  in  December,  1867,^ 
are  as  follows:— 

Peruvian  Guano,  in  quantities  of  60  tons,  per  long  ton,  (gold) $60.00 

do            do       in  smaller  quantities  the  price  varies  with  the  premi- 
um on  gold;  with  gold  at  35  per  cent,  prem.,  per  2000  lbs 85.00 

Baker's  or  Jarvis'  Island  Guano — a  phosphatic  Guano  from  the  S.  Paci- 
fic Ocean,  which  should  contain  equivalent  to  60  to  70  per  cent,  of 

bone  phosphate  of  lime,  per  2000  lbs 45.00 

Superphosphate  of  Hme,  per  2000  lbs 55.00 

Bone,  fine  ground,  in  250  lb.  bbls.,  per  2000  lbs 45.00 

Flour  of  bone,  per  2000  lbs 60.00 

Fine  floated  bone,  per  2000  lbs 65.00 

Fish  manure,  dry  and  finely  ground,  per  2000  lbs 45.00 

do             unground,  per  2000  lbs 30.00 

Gypsum  or  plaster,  sold  in  quantities  of  Y  bbls.,  per  bbl.  (260  lbs). . .  1.15 

Shell  lime,  in  bulk,  per  bushel 10 

do            per  bbl 1.50 

Sulphuric  acid  of  66  degrees,  (oil  of  vitriol)  per  lb 2fc. 

do      do    of  60  degrees,  (pan  acid) 2Jc. 

Carboys  containing  about  160  lbs.  of  this  acid  cost  $3 
each,  and  may  be  returned  when  empty. 

The  following  table  was  prepared  by  John  B.  Laws,  of 
Rothampstead,  England.  The  money  values  of  the  manure 
resulting  from  feeding  the  several  substances  are  based  on 


1 

ARTIFICIAL    MANURES. 

361 

the  English  (gold)  prices  of  manure ;  they  would  be  consi- 

derably higher  here,  but  this  does  not  affect  their  relatwe 

value. 

Average  Composition^  per  cent,  and  per  ton,   of 

various 

kinds 

of  Agricultural  Produce,  dsc. 

PER    CENT. 

LBS.  PER  (LONG)  TON. 

11 

S? 

1 

i'^ 

-g'S 

^ 

25 

ii 

i 

1 

2 

11 

1 

CS 

•rt 

It 

i 

B 

o  a 

a 

It 

ft 

1 

o 

1^   . 
Ill 

4. 

1 

! 

2  OS 

o 

f 

H 

H 

Ph 

P-i 

'^ 

H 

H 

Ej 

fH 

'^ 

].  Linseed  cake 

88.0 

7.00 

4.92 

1.65 

4.75 

1,971 

156.8 

110.2 

37.0 

106.4 

19.72 

2.  Cotton-seed  cake 

89.0 

8.00 

7.00 

3.12 

6.50 

1,994 

179.2 

156.8 

70.0 

145.6 

27.86 

3.  Rape  cake 

89.0 

8.00 

5.75 

1.76 

5.00 

1,994 

179.2 

128.8 

39.4 

112.0 

21.01 

4.  Linseed 

90.0 

4.00 

3.38 

1.37 

3.80 

2,016 

89.6 

75.7 

30.7 

85.1 

15.65 

5.  Beans 

84.0 

3.00 

2.20 

1.27 

4.00 

1,882 

67.2 

49.3 

28.4 

89.6 

15.75 

6.  Peas 

84.5 

2.40 

1.84 

0.96 

3.40 

1,893 

53.8 

41.2 

21.5 

76.2 

13.38 

7,  Tares 

84.0 

2.00 

1.63 

0.66 

4.20 

1,892 

44.8 

36.5 

14.8 

94.1 

16.75 

8.  Lentils 

88.0 

3.00 

1.89 

0.96 

4.30 

1,971 

67.2 

42.3 

21.5 

96.3 

16.51 

9.  Malt  dust 

94.0 

8.50 

5.23 

2.12 

4.20 

2,106 

190.4 

117.1 

47.5 

94.1 

18.21 

10.  Locust  beans.... 

11.  Indian  meal 

85.0 
88.0 

1.75 
1.30 

*i".i3" 

6.*35 

1.25 
1.80 

1,904 
1,971 

39.2 
29.1 

28.0 
40.3 

4.81 
6.65 

■"25  ".3 

'7!8 

12.  Wheat 

85.0 

1.70 

1.87 

0.50 

1.80 

1,904 

38.1 

42.0 

11.2 

40.3 

7.08 

13.  Barley 

84.0 

2.20 

1.35 

0.55 

1.65 

1,882 

49.3 

30.2 

12.3 

37.0 

6.S2 

14.  Malt 

95.0 

2.60 

1.60 

0.65 

1.70 

2,128 

58.2 

35.8 

14.6 

38.1 

6.65 

15.  Oats 

86.0 

2.85 

1.17 

0.50 

2.00 

i;926 

63.8 

26.2 

11.2 

44.8 

7.70 

16.  Fine  pollard* 

86.0 

5.60 

6.44 

1.46 

2.60 

1,926 

125.4 

144.2 

32.7 

58.2 

13.53 

17.  Coarse  pollardt 

86.0 

6.20 

7.52 

1.49 

2.58 

1,926 

138.9 

168.4 

33.4 

57.8 

14.36 

18.  Wheat  bran 

86.0 

6.60 

7.95 

1.45 

2.55 

1,926 

147.8 

178.1 

32.5 

57.1 

14.59 

19.  Clover  hay 

84.0 

7.50 

1.25 

1.30 

2.50 

1,882 

168.0 

28.0 

29.1 

56.0 

9.64 

20.  Meadow  hay 

84.0 

6.00 

0.88 

1.50 

1.50 

1,882 

134.4 

19.7 

33.6 

33.6 

6.43 

21.  Bean  straw. 

82.5 

5.55 

0.90 

1.11 

0.90 

1,848 

124.3 

20.2 

24.9 

20.2 

3.87 

22.  Pea  straw 

82.0 

5.95 

0.85 

0.89 

1,&37 

133.3 

19.0 

19.9 

20.2 

3.74 

23.  Wheat  straw 

84.0 

5.00 

0.55 

0.65 

oieo 

1,882 

112.0 

12.3 

14.6 

13.4 

2.68 

24.  Barley  straw 

85.0 

4.50 

0.37 

0.63 

0.50 

1,904 

100.8 

8.3 

14.1 

11.2 

2.25 

25.  Oat   straw 

83.0 

5.50 

0.48 

0.93 

0.60 

1,859 

123.2 

10.7 

20.8 

13.4 

2.90 

26.  Mangel  wurzel 

12.5 

1.00 

0.09 

0.25 

0.25 

280 

22.4 

2.0 

5.6 

5.6 

1.07 

27.  Swedish  turnips 

11.0 

0.68 

0.13 

0.18 

0.22 

246 

13.4 

2.9 

4.0 

4.6 

0.91 

28.  Common  turnips 

8.0 

0.68 

0.11 

0.29 

0.18 

179 

15.2 

2.5 

6.5 

4.0 

0.86 

29.  Potatoes 

24.0 

1.00 

0.32 

0.43 

0.35 

537 

22.4 

7.2 

9.6 

7.8 

1.50 

30.  Carrots 

13.5 

0.70 

0.13 

0.23 

0.20 

302 

15.7 

2.9 

5.1 

4.5 

0.80 

31.  Parsnips 

15.0  1.00'  0.42  Jo. 3610. 22 

'336  I    22.4'       9.4 

8.1 

4.9 

1.14 

*  Jlidd 

lings,  CanieUe.                                t  Shipstnff. 

16 

TILE  DRAINING.   * 

I  have  preferred  to  head  this  article  as  I  have,  rather  than 
to  say  simply  "  draining  "  or  "  under-draining,"  because  I 
believe  in  the  use  of  tiles  under  all  circumstances  when  it 
is  possible  to  procure  them,  and  because  the  making  of  stone 
drains  is  understood  by  every  farmer  who  lives  in  a  region 
that  is  blessed  with  wet  land  and  stone. 

At  the  same  time,  I  would  not  be  thought  to  undervalue 
the  usefulness  of  stone  drains.  Neither  the  stone  nor  the 
tile  has  any  influence,  in  itself,  on  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 
Any  material  by  the  use  of  which  we  can  make  a  passage- 
way through  the  soil  will  make  a  perfectly  good  drain,  as 
long  as  it  keeps  tlie  ^passage  open. 

The  question  is  to  be  decided  simply  by  the  consideration 
of  cost  and  durability ;  and  here  the  tiles  have  an  immense 
advantage. 

In  the  first  place,  they  are  very  much  cheaper  than  stone  ; 
and  in  the  second,  the  drain  which  they  make  is  very  much 
more  likely  to  be  permanent. 

It  will,  I  am  aware,  strike  many  farmers  whose  land  is 
encumbered  with  stones,  as  a  singular  proposition  that  it  is 
cheaper  to  pay  twenty-five  or  thirty  dollars  per  acre  for  tiles, 
when  there  are  stones  on  the  place  that  it  would  be  an  ad- 
vantage to  get  rid  of.     But  it  is  a  fact,  nevertheless.     The 


TILE   DRAINING.  363 

cost  of  collecting  the  stones,  of  breaking  (or  selecting  them) 
to  a  proper  size,  of  laying  them  in  the  drain,  and  of  pro- 
tecting them  from  the  rattling  down  of  loose  dirt  among 
them,  and  from  the  burrowing  down  of  field-mice,  is  very 
great,  and  in  addition  to  this  we  have  to  calculate  the  cost 
of  digging  the  very  much  wider  ditch  that  is  required  for 
their  use. 

To  drain  land  in  the  best  manner  there  are  required  about 
sixty  rods  of  drain  four  feet  deep,  and  fifty  cents  a  rod  for 
the  above  items  (which  is  the  utmost  that  tile  should  cost) 
would  not  pay  one-half  of  the  actual  cost  of  stones,  if  we 
calculate  the  labor  of  teams  and  men  at  anything  approach- 
ing their  full  value. 

As  to  durability.  A  tile  drain,  when  properly  laid,  is  pack- 
ed closely  in  the  most  compact  subsoil  within  our  reach,  has 
its  joints  (which  are  very  close)  encased  in  an  earthen  collar, 
is  closed  at  its  upper  end  by  a  flat  stone  against  the  tile,  and 
its  outlet  secured  by  a  grating.  No  dirt  can  get  in  to  stop 
it  up,  and  no  vermin  can  use  it  for  a  camping  ground.  The 
only  thing  (except  in  rare  instances  the  roots  of  trees)  that 
can  enter  it  at  all  is  the  water  that  it  is  intended  to  carry 
away. 

Of  course  I  speak  of  a  tile  drain  that  is  made  of  good 
materials  and  is  made  in  a  proper  manner.  It  is  very  easy 
to  make  a  drain  that  will  not  be  worth  the  cost  of  the  tiles, 
not  worth  anything ;  and  many  such  drains  are  made  by 
careless  or  ignorant  people,  who,  seeing  their  uselessness, 


364  TILE   DRAINING. 

are  loud  in  the  praise  of  stone  drains,  and  never  want  to  see 
another  draining  tile  so  long  as  they  live. 

A  good  tile-drain,  made  of  good  clay  and  well  burnt, 
properly  laid  on  a  uniform  descent,  and  having  a  good  out- 
let^ is  practically  as  permanent  as  the  earth  in  which  it  is 
imbedded. 

And  now,  how  to  make  such  a  drain.  It  would  take 
much  more  than  the  few  pages  that  can  be  here  devoted  to 
the  subject  to  tell.  All  that  my  space  will  allow  me  to  do 
is  to  give  a  few  general  rules  and  directions,  which  will  suf- 
fice to  enable  a  farmer  to  understandingly  decide  for  himself 
whether  he  will  make  his  drains  of  stones  or  of  tiles ;  and  a 
few  arguments  which  may  convince  him  that  he  cannot 
afford  to  let  his  wet  land  go  undrained. 

The  draining  tile  is  made  in  several  forms,  known  as  the 
"  round,"  the  "  sole,"  and  the  "  horse-shoe."  The  last  men- 
tioned represents  the  first  step  that  was  taken  in  advance  of 
the  use  of  stones,  and  it  has  long  been  condemned  as  an  in- 
ferior article  by  all  who  have  had  experience  in  the  use  of 
the  other  kinds.  The  sole-tile,  which  has  an  egg-shaped  ori- 
fice, and  has  a  flat  side  to  lie  upon,  is  theoretically  very 
good,  and  is  really  very  good,  only  not  the  best.  The  flat 
side  is  a  delusion,  for  the  reason  that  it  generally  is  not  fiat^ 
being  very  liable  to  be  warped  out  of  shape  in  the  burning, 
while  the  uneven  drying  of  the  clay  before  it  is  burnt,  or 
the  friction  of  the  die  through  which  it  is  moulded,  is  very 
apt  to  so  distort  its  shape  as  to  make  it  difiicult  to  make  a 
good  joint. 


TILE   DRATNESTG.  365 

The  round  tile,  if  well  made,  is  much  better,  is  practically 
perfect.  A  tile  does  not  need  a  flat  side  to  lie  upon,  for  in  nine 
cases  out  of  ten  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  is  not  flat,  and  as  soon 
as  each  piece  is  put  in  its  place,  and  while  it  is  held  there  by 
the  tile-layer,  a  second  man  covers  it  sufficiently  to  hold  it 
firmly.  The  smaller  sizes  have  collars  or  rings  to  fit  them, 
and  these  keep  the  joints  "  in  line  "  and  prevent  loose  dirt 
from  rattling  into  the  wider  openings.  Another  great  ad- 
vantage of  the  round  tiles  is  that,  if  they  don't  fit  each  other 
as  they  are  first  laid,  they  can  be  turned  over  until  the 
slight  inequalities  of  the  two  ends  will  correspond. 

All  of  the  larger  tile  makers  now  make  the  round  tiles, 
and  most  of  them  make  them  very  well.  A  machine  in- 
vented by  Mr.  Tifl'any  (of  the  Crosmann  Clay  and  Manufac- 
turing Company,  Woodbridge,  I^ew  Jersey)  moulds  the  tiles 
more  smoothly,  and  presses  them  harder,  than  any  other  yet 
brought  into  use.  Mr.  C.  W.  Boynton,  of  Woodbridge, 
however,  seems  to  have  brought  more  real  talent  to  the 
manufacture  of  tiles  than  any  one  else  who  has  under- 
taken the  business,  and  his  pipes  are  probably  the  best  now 
made,  inasmuch  as  they  are  two  feet  long — twice  the  usual 
length — and  are  supplied  with  connecting  pieces  for  admit- 
ting lateral  drains  into  the  main  trunk  lines.  Heretofore  it 
has  been  the  custom  to  pick  a  hole  in  the  side  of  the  tile  of 
the  main  drain,  and  to  bring  the  end  of  the  lateral  against 
it,  closing  the  irregular  openings  by  covering  them  with  bits 
of  broken  tile  or  small  stones ;  and  it  was  nice  work  to 


366 


TILE   DKAINmG. 


avoid  breaking  the  pipe,  and  at  the  same  time  to  make  the 
joint  so  accurately  as  to  neither  retard  the  flow  nor  to  admit 
earth  from  the  filling. 

Boynton's  pipes,  which  are  shown  in  the  accompanying 
cuts,  have  a  branch  piece  nicely  fitted  to  the  side  of  the 
pipe  that  is  to  form  a  part  of  the  main,  the  branch  forming 
a  part  of  the  lateral.  On  the  end  of  this  branch  a  collar 
may  be  placed  to  receive  the  end  of  the  lateral,  making  as 
good  a  joint  at  the  junction  as  at  any  other  part  of  the 
drain. 

Before  this  improvement  was  made,  it  was  often  neces- 
sary, where  a  tile  came  into  the  main,  to  make  a  silt-basin 
to  catch  any  silt  that  might  be  deposited  by  the  more  slug- 
gish flow  of  the  water  at  that  point.  By  its  aid  these  silt- 
basins  may  be,  in  nearly  all  cases,  dispensed  with,  as  the 
lateral  enters  in  an  oblique  direction,  and  the  velocity  of  its 
flow  will  be  imparted  to  that  of  the  main. 


Fig.  1. 


Fie.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  1  shows  the  round  tile ;  Fig.  2,  the  collar  ;  Fig.  3,  the 
manner  of  laying  these ;  Fig.  4,  the  connecting  joint  of  the 


TILE   DRAINING.  367 

main  with  a  branch  to  receive  the  lateral ;  and  Fig.  5   the 


Fig.  4. 

manner  of  laying  the  tiles  at  the  junction  of  a  lateral  drain 
with  the  main. 


Fig.  5. 

Rules  to  he  observed  in  making  Tile  Drai/ns : — 

1.  Every  drain  (unless  there  is  some  special  reason  to 
the  contrary)  should  run  directly  down  the  steepest  de- 
scent of  the  land — not  obliquely,  but  straight  down  the  hill. 

2.  Wherever  possible,  the  drains  should  be  four  feet 
deep,  especially  when  the  subsoil  is  a  stiff  clay  hard-pan. 

3.  When  the  drains  are  four  feet  deep,  they  should  be 
forty  feet  apart.  If  only  three  feet  deep,  they  should  be 
only  twenty  feet  apart ;  and  if  more  than  four  feet,  they 
may  safely  be  placed  at  greater  distances  than  forty  feet. 


568  TILE   DRAINING. 

4.  The  rate  of  fall  or  inclination  of  a  drain  should  not  de- 
crease as  it  approaches  the  outlet.  It  may  be  increased  as 
much  as  is  convenient.  The  rule  is,  to  keep  the  water  run- 
ning faster  and  faster,  rather  than  slower  and  slower,  as  it 
gets  on  in  the  drain. 

5.  The  outlet  should  always  be  clear  and  free — never,  if 
it  can  possibly  be  avoided,  so  "arranged  as  to  be  obstructed 
by  mud  or  dead  water. 

6.  The  tiles  should  have  no  porous  material  of  any  kind 
over  them,  but  should  be  imbedded  (and  firmly  packed)  in 
the  closest  clay  that  is  accessible. 

Y.  In  digging  the  ditch,  always  commence  at  the  lower 
end  and  work  toward  the  top  ;  in  laying  the  tiles,  commence 
at  the  upper  end,  and  continue  toward  the  outlet. 

8.  Never  have  tiles  laid  by  the  piece  (or  rod),  but  al- 
ways by  the  day,  and  by  the  most  faithful  and  careful  man 
that  can  be  found ;  if  possible,  do  it  yourself,  and  remem- 
ber that  the  golden  rule  of  draining  is  that,  as  the  weakest 
link  of  a  chain  is  the  measure  of  its  strength^  so  is  the 
worst  laid  tile  of  a  drain  the  measure  of  its  goodness."^ 

If  the  drains  are  laid  at  distances  of  forty  feet  it  will  take 
just  about  one  thousand  feet  of  tiles  to  drain  an  acre. 

As  to  the  sizes  of  tiles  required,  it  will  make  a  difference 
whether  the  fall  is  rapid  or  slight ;  but  under  all  ordinary 
circumstances,  where  there  are  no  springs  to  be  disposed  of, 
only  the  natural  drainage  of  the  land  itself  (its  accumulated 

*  Talpa,  or  the  Chronicles  of  a  Clay  Farm. 


TILE    DRAINING.  369 

rain-fall),  the  first  1500  feet  in  length,  whether  it  be  a  single 
drain  or  several  laterals,  may  be  made  of  the  smallest  sized 
tiles  {1^  inch).  Beyond  this  amount  and  up  to  5000  feet, 
2-inch  tiles  will  suffice.  From  5000  to  10,000  feet  use  3- 
inch,  and  from  10,000  to  20,000  feet  use  4:-inch. 

These  sizes  would  not  suffice  for  the  immediate  removal 
of  all  the  water  of  a  A'ery  heavy  rain-fall,  but  it  is  to  be  re- 
membered that  before  the  water  can  get  to  the  tiles  it  must 
filter  slowly  through  four  feet  of  soil,  and  could  reach  the 
drain  but  slowly,  were  it  ever  so  large.  Then  again,  it  is 
not  important  that  the  water  of  a  heavy  rain  be  removed 
within  an  hour  of  its  falling ;  it  does  no  harm  to  have  it 
settle  slowly  away,  so  long  as  it  really  does  settle  away,  and 
does  not  stand  to  be  evaporated  from  the  surface,  nor  to 
flow  off  over  it ;  and  it  is  desirable  that  the  drains  should 
occasionally  run  "more  than  full,"  so  that  a  strong  flow  of 
water  may  wash  out  any  obstructions  that  may  have  accu- 
mulated in  them. 

The  questimi  should  not  he  so  much  hoio  large  a  Ule  is 
necessary  to  carry  the  water,  as  how  large  a  tile  will  the 
%oater  {after  heavy  rains)  he  ahle  to  flush  and  keej>  clean. 

In  the  foregoing,  I  have  simply  stated  rules  and  principles 
which  have  been  proven  by  long  experience  to  be  correct. 
The  evidences  of  their  truth  and  reliability,  and  the  argu- 
ments on  wliich  they  are  founded,  could  not  be  set  forth  in 
tlie  limited  space  which  has  been  allowed  for  the  subject  in 

this  book.     The  object  here  is  to  set  forth  rules  and  to  give 

16* 


370 


TILE   DRAINING. 


Fig.  6. 
Tools  used  in  laying  drain  tile. 


TILE   DBAINING. 


371 


directions.  Those  who  are  desirous  of  investigating  reasons 
will  find  them  stated  in  other  works  which  are  devoted  to 
the  fuller  discussion  of  the  various  topics  here  touched  upon. 

The  ditches  are  usually  dug,  in  this  country,  with  the  or- 
dinary pick,  spade,  and  shovel,  with  the  single  addition  of  a 
narrow  scoop  to  work  in  the  narrow  bottoms  of  the  drains. 
Such  a  scoop  may  be  made  by  cutting  a  common,  round- 
pointed,  long-handled  shovel  down  to  a  width  of  four  or  five 
inches. 

In  Europe,  where  much  more  extensive  operations  of 
drainage  are  carried  on  than  are  known  in  this  country,  sets 
of  tools  especially  adapted  for  all  the  dififerent  operations 
are  used.     One  set  of  these  is  shown  in  Fig.  6. 


Fig.  7. 


The  position  of  the  workman  in  cutting  a  narrow  ditch 


372 


TILE   DRAINING. 


for  a  tile,  or  rather  in  finishing  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  with 
the  scoop,  is  shown  in  Fig.  7. 


Fig.  a 


The  manner  of  securing  the  outlet  so  as  to  keep  out  ver- 


Fro,  9. 


min,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  prevent  the  earth  from  caving 
in  about  the  end  of  the  drain,  is  shown  in  Fig.  8. 


WHY    SHOULD   LAND    BE    DRAINED?  373 

The  manner  in  which  draining  tiles  are  moulded  from  moist 
clay  may  be  learned  from  Fig.  9,  whicli  represents  a  strong 
wooden  box  filled  with  clay,  which,  by  the  pressure  of  a 
lever,  is  forced  out  through  holes  which  have  the  shape  of 
the  outside  of  the  tile.  A  plug  stands  in  the  middle  of 
each  hole  (supported  from  within,  so  that  the  clay  can  en- 
tirely surround  it  as  it  comes  out),  which  makes  the  bore  of 
the  tile. 

WHY  SHOULD   LAND  BE  DRAINED? 

There  is  one  condition  of  soil  that  is  the  most  favorable 
for  the  growth  of  nearly  all  agricultural  plants — that  is  a 
condition  of  porousness,  moisture,  warmth,  and  aeration. 
The  roots  of  plants  need  to  be  in  a  darh  place,  to  be  sur- 
rounded hy  moisture  (this  is  very  different  from  being 
soaked  in  water),  and  to  be  sufficiently  supplied  with  air. 

There  are  other  conditions  of  fertility,  such  as  richness 
in  plant-food,  &c.,  which,  although  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance, are  apart  from  our  present  subject.  What  we  have 
now  to  do  with  is  the  mechanical  state  of  the  soil,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  its  chemical  composition  and  action — that 
is  to  say,  with  its  moisture,  its  temperature,  the  ease  with 
which  roots  can  penetrate  it  in  search  of  nutriment,  and  the 
opportimity  for  the  admission  of  atmospheric  air  to  their 
vicinity. 

The  effects  of  drainage  on  the  chemical  constitution  of 
the  soil,  and  on  the  chemical  action  of  its  ingredients  as 


374  WHY   SHOULD   LAND   BE   DRAINED? 

affecting  vegetation,  i&  very  great :  but  it  is  not  necessary  to 
the  strength  of  the  argument  that  they  should  be  detailed 
here,  and  their  sufficient  discussion  would  require  too  much 
space. 

Moisture. 

By  the  moisture  of  the  soil  we  mean  a  condition  resem- 
bling that  of  a  sponge  which  has  been  dipped  in  water  and 
then  lifted  out  and  allowed  to  drain.  While  in  the  water  it 
was  saturated — that  is,  all  of  its  pores  were  filled  with 
water — but  on  being  removed  the  water  all  runs  out  from  its 
pores,  except  the  small  amount  that  adheres  (by  capillary 
attraction)  to  its  substance. 

In  like  manner  the  undrained  soil,  after  a  heavy  rain,  is 
saturated.  All  of  the  spaces  between  its  particles  are  filled 
with  water.  After  draining,  this  water  all  passes  away, 
except  the  small  amount  which  adheres  to  the  surfaces  of 
the  particles,  and  that  which  fills  the  more  minute  pores 
of  these  particles.  There  is  enough  water  in  the  soil  in  this 
condition  to  supply  the  demands  of  plants  ;  but  there  is  not 
— as  there  was  before  draining — so  much  as  to  interfere  with 
their  healthy  growth. 

Not  the  least  beneficial  effect  of  draining  is  that  which  is 
the  result  of  the  admission  of  air  to  its  lower  and  cooler 
parts,  causing  a  deposit  of  moisture  in  dry  weather,  which 
is  sufficient  to  supply  the  needs  of  vegetation,  and  to 
greatly  mitigate,  if  it  does  not  even  entirely  overcome,  the 
effects  of  drought. 


WHY    SHOULD    LAND    BE    DRAINED?  375 

That  land  should  be  made  damper  by  being  made  more 
diy,  that  under-draining  should  be  one  of  the  best  pre- 
ventives of  the  ill  effects  of  drought — this  is  the  apparently 
anomalous  proposition  on  wliich  one  of  the  strongest  argu- 
ments in  favor  of  draining  is  based. 

When  we  see  a  field  baked  to  the  consistence  of  a  brick, 
gaping  open  in  wide  cracks,  and  covered  with  a  stunted 
growth  of  parched  and  thirsty  plants,  it  seems  hard  to  be- 
lieve that  the  simple  laying  of  hollow  tiles,  four  feet  deep, 
in  the  dried-up  mass,  would  do  anything  at  all  toward  the 
improvement  of  its  condition ;  for  the  present  season  it 
would  not,  but  for  the  next  it  would,  and  for  every  season 
thereafter,  and  in  increasing  degree,  so  long  as  the  tiles 
continued  to  act  as  effective  drainage. 

The  baking  and  cracking,  and  the  unfertile  condition  of 
the  soil  are  the  result  of  a  previous  condition  of  entire  satu- 
ration. Clay  cannot  be  moulded  into  bricks,  nor  can  it  be 
dried  into  lumps  unless  it  is  first  made  soaking  wet.  Dry, 
or  only  damp  clay,  once  made  fine,  can  never  again  be  made 
lumpy,  unless  it  is  first  made  thoroughly  wet,  and  is  pressed 
together  while  in  its  wet  condition.  Neither  can  a  consi- 
derable heap  of  pulverized  clay,  kept  covered  from  the  rain, 
but  exposed  to  the  sun  and  air,  ever  become  even  apparently 
dry,  except  within  a  few  inches  of  its  surface.  After 
under-draining  has  had  time  to  bring  the  soil,  to  a  depth 
of  two  or  three  feet,  to  a  thoroughly  drained  condition, 
it  will  equally  prevent  it  from  being  baked  into  lumps,  or 


376  WHY    SHOULD    LAND    BE   DRAINED? 

from  becoming,  for  any  considerable  depth  below  the  sur- 
face, too  dry  for  the  purposes  of  vegetation.  In  the  first 
place,  the  water  of  heavy  spring  rains,  instead  of  lying 
soaking  in  the  soil  until  the  rapid  drying  of  summer  bakes 
it  into  coherent  lumps,  settles  away  and  leaves  the  clay, 
within  a  few  hours  after  the  rain  ceases,  and  before  rapid 
evaporation  commences,  too  much  dried  to  crack  into 
lumps. 

The  other  direct  efibct  of  under-draining  is  to  remove 
from  below,  water  which,  if  not  so  removed,  would  be  eva- 
porated from  the  surface. 

The  formation  of  a  crust  on  the  surface  of  the  ground 
is  in  direct  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  water  that  is 
removed  by  evaporation,  and  the  crust  constitutes  a  barrier 
against  the  admission  of  air.  Consequently  the  larger  the 
quantity  of  water  that  is  removed  by  the  drains,  the  smaller 
is  the  obstacle  offered  to  the  entrance  of  air.  The  more 
constantly  the  lower  parts  of  the  soil  are  relieved  from  ex- 
cess of  water  and  supplied  with  air,  the  more  deeply  will 
roots  descend ;  and  the  more  frequently  will  the  air  in  the 
lower  soil  be  changed,  the  easier  its  communication  with 
the  atmosphere. 

On  these  two  principles  depends  the  immunity  from 
drought  which  under-draining  helps  us  to  secure.  In  dry 
weather  the  soil  gets  its  moisture  from  the  deposit  of  dew, 
on  the  surface  during  the  night,  and  on  the  surfaces  of  the 
particles  of  the  lower  soil  constantly,  day  and  night. 


WHY    SHOULD    LAND    BE   DRAINED?  377 

Teinperature. 

The  temperature  of  the  soil  is  a  matter  of  the  utmost 
consequence.  Seeds  cannot  germinate,  and  plants  cannot 
grow  without  there  being  a  certain  amount  of  heat  in  the 
soil,  and  there  is  no  means  by  which  this  heat  is  so  much 
and  so  constantly  reduced  as  by  the  evaporation  of  water 
from  its  surface.  In  proportion  as  we  remove  by  the  means 
of  under-draining  the  water  which  would,  if  not  so  removed, 
remain  to  be  evaporated,  we  allow  the  soil  to  attain  a 
higher  temperature,  and  so  to  become  more  productive. 

The  penetration  of  roots. 

In  a  soil  that  is  usually  too  wet,  the  roots  of  plants  con- 
iine  their  operations  to  the  few  inches  of  dry  soil  at  the 
surface,  as  they  will  not  push  into  a  cold,  compact,  wet  sub- 
soil. Draining  removes  the  water  from  the  subsoil,  allows 
it  to  become  sweet  and  warm  and  loose,  and  fit  for  the 
entrance  of  roots,  which  are  thereby  enabled  to  seek  farther 
for  a  greater  quantity  and  a  greater  variety  of  food. 

The  circulation  of  air. 

Atmospheric  air,  if  not  absolutely  necessary  to  the  life 
and  action  of  the  roots  of  plants,  greatly  favors  their  growth 
and  their  absorption  of  food.  Aside  from  its  direct  supply 
of  carbonic  acid  to  the  feeding  parts  of  the  roots,  it  brings 
moisture  to  the  soil  by  which  they  are  surrounded,  and  aids 
in  preparing  its  nutrient  constituents  for  assimilation. 


KOTATIOlSr  OF  CROPS. 

The  experience  of  practical  farmers  very  early  demon- 
strated the  necessity  for  adopting  a  system  of  changes  in 
the  crops  grown  on  the  same  soil.  Thus,  we  find  in  the 
writings  of  Columella,  Yarro,  Theophrastus,  and  others  who 
in  ancient  times  wrote  on  the  subject  of  agriculture,  distinct 
rules  laid  down  as  to  the  course  of  cultivation  to  be  pur- 
sued in  order  to  prevent  the  exhaustion  of  the  soil,  or,  rather, 
to  prevent  it  from  failing  to  produce  a  particular  crop  so 
long  as  it  was  fertile  for  anything,  and  to  enable  it  to  make 
full  use  of  whatever  manures  were  applied  to  it. 

In  more  modern  times,  the  reasons  why  rotations  are  ne- 
cessary have  been,  in  a  measure,  explained  by  the  aid  of 
chemistry,  but  we  have  not  materially  improved  on  the 
jpractice  of  those  who  cultivated  the  soil  2000  years  ago. 

The  various  crops  appropriate  different  elements  from  the 
soil,  or  the  same  elements  in  different  proportions.  Of 
course,  by  raising  the  same  crop  year  after  year  from  the 
same  field,  its  quantity  and  quality  not  only  yearly  deterior- 
ate, but  the  soil  becomes  exhausted  of  the  special  ingredi- 
ents which  go  to  support  the  growth  of  tliat  particular 
product,  while  it  accumulates  the  elements  especially  adapted 
to  some  other  crop. 


KOTATION    OF    CROPS.  379 

The  principle  on  which  rotations  are  based  may  be  readi- 
ly understood  from  the  following  illustration  : — 

What  are  known  as  the  root  crops  contain,  in  their  ashes, 
a  very  large  proportion  of  potash.  The  average  amount  of 
this  substance  contained  in  the  ash  of  potatoes,  turnips, 
beets,  and  caiTots,  is  fully  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  whole  ;  that 
is,  they  contain  as  much  of  this  single  ingredient  as  of  all 
the  other  mineral  ingredients  combined.  Wheat,  rye,  oats, 
and  barley,  on  the  other  hand,  contain  an  average  of  only 
twenty-fi/ve  per  cent.^  or  only  one-half  as  much  of  this  as  of 
all  the  other  ingredients. 

If  we  examine  their  content  of  phosphoric  acid^  however, 
we  shall  find  the  case  quite  difierent.  For  instance,  the 
four  root  crops  above  named  contain  an  average  of  only 
about  thirteen  per  cent,  of  this  element,  while  the  four 
grain  crops  contain  an  average  of  about  thirty-seven  per 
ceiit. 

Again,  lime  forms  but  about  three  per  cent,  of  the  ash  of 
most  root  crops,  while  it  exists  in  clover  and  most  of  the 
fodder  plants  to  the  extent  of  about  thirty-fi/oe  per  cent,  of 
their  ash. 

If  we  were  to  follow  through  the  whole  range  of  the 
mineral  constituents  of  our  crops,  we  should  find  similar 
variations  in  the  amounts  appropriated  by  the  different 
plants  which  are  commonly  grown  on  our  fields. 

Kow,  suppose  that  on  a  field  of  average  quality  we  find 
that  wheat  or  some  other  grain  grows  to  advantage.     Stimu- 


380  ROTATION    OF    CROPS. 

lated  by  the  profits  of  the  cultivation  of  this  grain,  we  con- 
tinue to  grow  it  year  after  year,  without  intermission.  The 
result  is  that — sooner  or  later,  often  within  two  or  three 
years — we  lind  the  yield  steadily  diminishing.  One  reason 
for  this  is  that  we  have  been  constantly  robbing  the  soil  of 
undue  amounts  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  (without  rendering 
it  unfertile  for  some  other  ci'ops,  such  as  potatoes)  we  have 
seriously  impaired  its  capacity  for  the  production  of  wheat. 
If,  instead  of  raising  wheat  the  second  year,  we  had  raised 
potatoes,  or  clover,  or  some  plant  of  an  entirely  different 
character  from  wheat,  we  should  have  drawn  more  evenly 
on  all  of  the  resources  of  the  land,  and  should  have  post- 
poned the  exhaustion  of  its  stock  of  available  phosphoric 
acid. 

Here  then  comes  in  play,  also,  another  element  which  it 
is  necessary  for  the  farmer  to  consider,  namely  : — there  are 
constantly  going  on  in  the  soil  (which  may  be  considered  a 
natural  chemical  laboratory)  certain  cliemical  and  mechani- 
cal processes,  whose  effect  is  to  continually  set  free  from 
other  combinations  and  prepare  for  the  use  of  plants  the 
various  minerals  which  constitute  their  ashes.  Therefore, 
if  we  bring  a  grain  crop  into  the  rotation  only  once  in  four, 
five,  or  six  years,  the  simple  action  of  these  processes  will, 
in  the  intervening  time,  set  free  enough  phosphoric  acid  for 
a  second  crop.  Soils  difier,  not  only  in  their  composition, 
but  in  the  rapidity  with  which  their  elements  are  set  free ; 
consequently  we  find  some  soils  on  which  the  same  crop  may 


ROTATION    OF    CROPS.  381 

safely  be  tried  every  second  or  third  year,  and  others  on 
which  we  must  allow  a  much  longer  interval. 

The  same  rule  that  applies  to  the  soil  holds  good  also  with 
regard  to  manures.  These  almost  always  contain  various 
matters  which  go  to  feed  plants,  and  we  must  study  to  so 
arrange  our  crops  as  to  make  profitable  use  of  all  that  they 
can  yield ;  and,  if  they  are  of  a  sort  to  need  time  and  the 
action  of  the  chemical  and  mechanical  influence  of  the  at- 
mosphere and  of  the  soil  for  the  complete  development  of 
all  of  their  constituents,  we  must  adjust  our  crops,  so  far  as 
possible,  to  take  up  these  constituents  as  they  are  prepared 
for  use. 

The  foregoing  is  the  basis  of  the  chemical  theory  of  rota- 
tions. 

In  addition  to  this,  we  must  consider  the  influence  exerted 
on  the  soil  by  the  roots  which  are  left  in  the  ground  when 
the  crop  is  removed.  This  element  of  the  influence  which 
plants  exert  on  plants  which  are  to  follow  them  in  the  same 
soil  is  especially  important  in  the  case  of  clover,  which  is 
so  active  in  its  fertilizing  effect,  that  it  may  be  assumed  that 
we  have  overcome  our  great  difficulty  in  bringing  up  a  poor 
soil  when  we  have  enabled  it  to  grow  a  good  crop  of  clover. 
One  especial  virtue  of  this  plant  is  that  it  sends  its  roots  far 
into  the  subsoil,  and  thus  appropriates,  by  means  of  its  vigo- 
rous feeding  powers,  useful  materials  which  were  out  of  the 
reach  of  the  roots  of  plants  of  other  species.  These  materials 
are  deposited  in  the  substance  of  the  plant,  and  (on  its  decay 


382  ROTATION    OF    CROPS. 

wlien  ploughed  in,  or  on  the  decay  of  its  roots  when  these 
alone  are  left  in  the  soil)  they  are  presented  to  the  new  crop 
in  a  most  acceptable  form.  The  raising  of  other  green  crops 
to  be  ploughed  in  for  manure,  is  advantageous  for  the  same 
reasons. 

Two  most  valuable  accessions  to  the  rotation  of  crops  will 
be  found  in  the  root  crops,  and  in  green  forage  crops  to  be 
either  cured  for  winter  use  or  fed  to  animals  kept  on  the 
"  soiling  "  system.  To  these  crops  the  richest  animal  ma- 
nures may  be  profitably  applied,  and,  while  they  will  make 
a  most  luxuriant  growth,  they  will  ^'  draw  the  fire  "  of  the 
manure,  and  leave  the  land  in  the  best  condition  for  the 
growth  of  grain  crops. 

Copeland  says  :*  "  When  it  was  discovered  that  roots  of 
all  kinds  were  not  only  good  food,  but  the  best  food  for  cattle, 
those  farmers  who  believed  in  the  discovery  cultivated  roots, 
and  found,  not  only  that  their  value  as  food  was  inestimable, 
but  that,  with  a  given  expenditure  in  manure  and  labor, 
roots  gave  a  larger  return  in  value  than  any  other  crop. 
This  was  the  turning  point,  the  rising  tide-wave  of  improv- 
ing agriculture.  The  new  crop  was  an  improvement  in 
every  respect.  It  restored  fertility  better  than  the  fallow, 
gave  an  immense  amount  of  fodder,  and  insured  a  corre- 
sponding increase  in  manure,  from  the  greater  number  of 
cattle  which  could  be  fed  from  the  farm. 

"  Under  the  old  system — the  same  pursued  in  New  Eng- 

*  Country  Life,  page  435. 


ROTATION    OF    CROPS.  383 

land  at  the  present  day — there  was  a  large  and  a  small  white 
crop,  one  large  yield  of  hay,  then  smaller  and  smaller,  then 
good  pasture,  then  poor.  This  rotation  gave  a  change  from 
better  to  worse.  The  new  practice  demonstrated  that  there 
need  be  no  "  worse."  It  showed  that  a  root  crop  should 
follow  the  sod  and  should  be  followed  by  grain  ;  that  again 
by  grain  or  grass  and  clover ;  that  by  pasture  and  roots.  At 
first  it  was  made  a  point  that  a  white  crop  should  never  be 
taken  two  years  in  succession,  and  after  going  through  roots 
and  grass  it  was  found,  on  returning  to  the  white  crop,  that 
the  ground  was  so  much  richer  than  before,  that  a  number 
of  bushels  was  taken  previously  unheard  of  in  the  neigh- 
borhood." 

Liebig  says  :*  "  The  succession  of  crops  in  rotation  is  al- 
ways made  dependent  upon  the  cereals ;  the  preceding  crops 
are  selected  of  such  a  kind  that  their  cultivation  will  not 
injure,  but  rather  improve  the  succeeding  corn  crop.  The 
selection  of  the  particular  kind,  however,  is  always  governed 
by  the  condition  of  the  soil.  In  a  field  abounding  in  stalk 
and  leaf  constituents,  it  is  often  found  useful  to  have  wheat 
preceded  by  tobacco  or  rape,  rye  by  turnips  or  potatoes, 
since  these  plants,  by  drawing  from  the  soil  a  large  amount 
of  leaf  and  stalk  constituents,  serve  to  restore  a  more  suitable 
proportion  between  the  straw  and  corn  constituents  for  the 
future  cereal  crop,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  diminish  in  the 
arable  soil  those  conditions  which  favor  the  growth  of  weeds. 

*  The  Natural  Laws  of  Husbandry,  page  227. 


384  ROTATION    OF    CROPS, 

Prof.  James  F.  W.  Johnston  says  :*  "  Two  practical  rules 
are  suggested  by  the  fact  that  different  plants  require  differ- 
ent substances  to  abound  in  a  soil  in  which  they  shall  be 
capable  of  flourishing. 

"1.  To  grow  alternately  as  many  different  classes  or 
families  of  plants  as  possible,  repeating  each  class  at  the 
greatest  convenient  distance  of  time.  In  this  country 
(England)  we  grow,  chiefly,  root  crops — corn  plants  refined 
for  seed — leguminous  plants,  sometimes  for  seed  (peas  and 
beans),  and  sometimes  for  h^y  or  fodder  (clover  and  tares), 
and  grasses  ;  and  these  in  alternate  years. 

"  Every  four,  five,  or  six  years,  therefore,  the  same  class 
of  plants  comes  round  again,  and  a  demand  is  made  upon 
the  soil  for  the  same  kinds  of  food  in  the  same  proportion. 
*****  ^  perfect  rotation  would  include  all  those 
classes  of  plants  which  the  soil,  climate,  and  other  circum- 
stances allow  to  be  cultivated  with  a  profit. 

"  2.  A  second  rule  is,  to  repeat  the  same  species  of  plants 
at  the  greatest  convenient  distance  of  time,     -x-    *     *    *    * 

"  Instead,  therefore,  of  a  constant  repetition  of  the  turnip 
every  four  yeai-s,  theory  says,  make  the  carrot  or  the  potato 
take  its  place  now  and  then,  and  instead  of  perpetual  clover, 
let  tares,  or  peas,  or  beans  occasionally  succeed  to  your  crops 
of  corn.f 

*  Agricultural  Chemistry,  page  498. 

f  "  Corn,  iu  English  agricultural  writing,  is  a  general  term  corresponding  to 
our  grain.^^ 


ROTATION    OF    CROPS.  385 

"  The  land  loves  a  change  of  crop  because  it  is  better 
prepared  with  that  food  which  the  new  crop  will  relish  than 
with  such  as  the  plant  it  has  long  fed  before  continues  to 
require. 

''It  is  for  this  reason  that  new  species  of  crop  or  new 
varieties,  when  first  introduced,  succeed  remarkably  for  a 
time,  and  give  great  and  encouraging  returns.     *     *     *     * 

*'  It  is  constant  variety  of  crops  which,  with  rich  manu- 
ring, makes  our  market  gardens  so  productive,  and  it  is  the 
possibility  of  growing  in  the  fields  many  different  crops  in 
succession  that  gives  the  fertility  of  a  garden  to  parts  of 
Italy,  Flanders,  and  China." 

The  rotation  to  be  adopted  may  be  best  selected  by  each 
farmer  for  himself — keeping  in  mind  the  foregoing  principles 
— with  reference  to  his  soil,  his  market,  his  climate,  the 
price  and  supply  of  labor  in  his  neighborhood,  and  the  ex- 
tent to  which  he  can  accumulate  manure. 

The  rotation  which  the  writer  has  adopted  for  his  own 
farm  is  the  following : — 

First  year : — Indian  corn,  on  sod  land,  manured  the  pre- 
vious autumn  with  the  entire  accumulation  of  manure  in  the 
barn  cellar,  then  ploughed  and  left  in  the  rough  furrow  for 
the  fullest  exposure  to  frost,  harrowing  thoroughly  before 
planting  time. 

After  the  crop  is  taken  oif  in  the  fall,  the  land  to  be 

ploughed  and  again  left  in  the  rough  furrow  to  winter. 

17 


386 


ROTATION    OF    CROPS. 


Second  year : — Roots,  the  ground  being  properly  divided 
between  carrots,  mangel  wurzel,  turnips,  and  parsnips. 

For  this  crop  the  land  is  cross-ploughed  in  the  spring, 
dressed  with  one-half  of  the  winter's  accumulation  of  manure 
in  the  cellar,  and  from  100  to  250  lbs.  of  superphosphate  of 
lime,  both  sowed  broadcast  on  the  furrow  and  thoroughly 
harrowed  in. 

Third  year  : — Green  forage  crops  for  "  soiling  "  cattle — 
mainly  oats  and  Indian  corn  in  successive  sowings. 

These  crops  receive  the  balance  of  the  winter's  manure, 
and  a  good  portion  of  the  land  is  cleared  off  in  time  for 
winter  rye  to  be  sown. 

Fourth  year : — The  winter  rye  is  cut  green,  very  early  in 
the  season,  for  "  soiling  "  the  cattle,  and  on  the  land  not 
occupied  with  it  a  crop  of  green  fodder  is  grown  that  can  be 
got  off  by  August  1st. 

In  the  early  autumn  the  land  to  be  sown  to  wheat,  and 
seeded  down  with  timothy  and  clover. 

Fifth  year : — The  grain  harvested  and  the  growth  of 
grass  and  clover  left  on  the  land. 

Sixth  year : — Two  cuttings  of  hay  to  be  taken  off,  and 
the  land  to  be  manured  and  ploughed  in  the  fall  for  the  suc- 
ceeding crop  of  corn,  with  which  the  rotation  recommences. 


PROPERTIES    AND    COMPOSITION  OF    MILK, 
BUTTER,  &c. 

Composition  of  Milk  in  1000  pa/rts. 

Water 840 

Casein 40 

Milk-sugar 45 

Butter,  or  oil.. 40 

Phosphate  of  lime 17 

Phosphate  of  magnesia 4 

Chloride  of  potassium 9 

Common  salt 2 

Free  soda 3 

1000 

Note. — Milk  is  heavier  than  water  in  the  proportion  of 
103  to  100. 

The  rapidity  with  which  cream  rises  to  the  surface  de- 
pends upon  the  temperature  to  which  it  is  exposed. 

New  milk^  set  aside^  will  cream  in 

36  hrs.  if  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  50°  Fahrenheit. 

24   "  "  "  «  55°         u 

18  to  20   "  "  "  "  68°         " 

10  to  12   "  "  "  "  77°         " 

At  a  temperature  of  34°  to  37°,  it  maj  be  kept  two  to 


388      PROPERTIES    AND   COMPOSITION    OF   MILK,    BUTTER,     &C. 

three  weeks  without  throwing  up  any  noticeable  amount  of 
cream. 

Cream  contains  the  greater  part  of  the  fatty  matter  of  the 
milk,  a  small  portion  of  the  curd,  and  considerable  water. 

Good  cream,  when  skilfully  churned,  will  yield  about 
one-fourth  of  its. weight  of  butter. 

The  temperature  at  which  milk  can  be  churned  most  eco- 
nomically is  65°  Fahrenheit. 

The  temperature  at  which  cream  can  be  churned  most 
economically  is  at  58°  Fahrenheit. 

Butter  contains  more  or  less  of  all  the  ingredients  of  the 
milk.  Essentially  it  consists  of  the  fat  of  milk  mixed  with 
about  one-eighth  of  its  weight  of  water,  a  small  quantity 
of  casein  or  curd  (cheesy  matter),  and  of  saline  matter. 
The  casein  seldom  exceeds  two  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
weight. 

1l\\q  fat  of  butter^  w^hen  solidified  by  pressing  out  the  oil, 
is  identical  with  the  solid  fat  of  the  human  body. 

The  oil  of  butter  is  a  peculiar  kind  of  fat  not  hitherto 
detected  in  any  other  substance. 

These  two  ingredients  vary  considerably  with  different 
samples  ;  hence  the  different  degrees  of  hardness  which  dif- 
ferent samples  present.  The  solid  fat  abounds  more  in 
winter  ;  the  liquid  fat  more  in  summer.  They  are  in  about 
the  following  proportions  in  100  parts  : — 

Summer.     Winter. 

Solid  fat 40         65 

Oil  of  butter 60         35 


PROPERTIES   AND   COMPOSITION    OF   MILK,   BUTTER,    &C.        389 

The  main  cause  of  butter  becoming  rancid  is  the  chemi- 
cal decomposition  which  the  casein  or  curd  it  contains  un- 
dergoes by  exposure  to  the  air.  This  chemical  change  in 
the  cheesy  matter  may  be  prevented — 

1st,  By  thoroughly  washing  and  salting  before  the  cheesy 
matter  has  had  time  to  become  altered  by  exposure  to  tlie 
air  ; 

2d,  By  taking  care  that  any  water  that  may  remain  in 
or  around  the  butter  be  kept  perfectly  saturated  with  salt ; 

3d,  By  carefully  excluding  the  air  from  the  vessel  in  which 
the  butter  is  packed. 

About  half  a  pound  of  the  best  Ashton  salt  is  used  to  10 
pounds  of  butter. 

Milk  contains  a  peculiar  kind  of  sugar  called  milk-sugar, 
which,  being  highly  soluble  in  water,  passes  off  in  the  whey 
and  goes  to  fatten  pigs.  In  some  countries  it  is  extracted 
and  made  an  article  of  commerce. 

The  main  cause  of  milk  becoming  sour  is  the  chemical 
change  which  this  sugar  undergoes,  without  fermentation 
*and  therefore  without  loss,  into  an  acid  called  lactic  acid. 

This  lactic  acid  is  the  cause  of  the  curdling  of  the  milk, 
which  may  be  hastened  by  hastening  the  change  of  the  milk- 
sugar  into  lactic  acid  by  the  addition  of  any  other  acid,  such 


as  vmegar  or  rennet. 


Pure  casein  is  nearly  insoluble  in  pure  water,  either  by 
boiling  or  otherwise.  By  adding,  however,  a  little  soda  to 
the  water,  it  dissolves  and  returns  to  its  milky  condition  % 


390       PROPERTIES    AND   COMPOSITION    OF    MILK,    BUTTER,    &C. 

when,  by  adding  some  more  milk-sugar  (or  lactic  acid),  it 
again  curdles. 

The  milk  of  nearly  all  animals  contains  the  same  ingredi- 
ents.    The  best  known  varieties  consist  nearly  of — 

Woman.         Cow.  Ass.  Goat.  Ewe. 

Casein 1.5  4.5  1.8  4.1  4.5 

Butter 3.6  3.1  0.1  3.3  4.2 

Milk-sugar....   6.5  4.8  6.1  5.3  5.0 

Saline  matter..   0.5  0.6  0.3  0.6  0.7 

Water 87.9  87.0  91.7  86.7  85.6 

100.       100.      100.       100.       100. 
The   butter   and   cheese   producing   quality  of  milk    is 
shown  by  the  following 

Table. 

100  lbs.  milk  contains  about  3      lbs.  pure  butter. 
100  lbs.      "  "  "    7.8  lbs.      "     cheese. 

100  lbs.      "      averages      "     3.5  lbs.  common  butter. 
100  lbs.      "  "  "  11.7  lbs.         "         cheese 

100  lbs.  skim-milk  yields  "  13.5  lbs.  skim-milk      " 
1  qt.  wine  measure  weighs    35  oz. 
1  qt.  milk         "  "         41  oz. 

The  milk  of  different  cows  varies  much  in  richness.  We 
have  known  one  from  65  lbs.  of  whose  milk  were  made  64 
oz.  of  butter.  A  full  milk  cheese  contains  about  33  per 
cent,  of  water,  and  a  skim-milk  cheese  about  60  per  cent. 

Butter  at  50  cents  per  pound  will  yield  about  as  much 
profit  as  cheese  at  15  cents,  making  no  allowance  for  the 
value  of  skim-milk  over  whey. 


BUTTER  AND   CHEESE-MAKING. 

The  Butter  Dairy. — The  quality  of  butter  doubtlessly 
depends  more  upon  the  manufacture  than  upon  all  other 
causes  combined,  yet  it  is  true  that  the  cows,  the  grass  or 
food,  and  the  water,  have  much  to  do  with  the  delicacy  of 
its  flavor  and  richness  of  its  color.  It  is  a  notorious  fact  that 
eight-tenths  of  the  butter  that  is  sold  in  the  market  brings 
from  five  io  fifteen  cents  per  pound  less  than  it  would  have 
done  had  it  been  properly  manufactured.  Factory  cheese 
for  the  same  reason  brings  from  three  to  eight  cents  per 
pound  more  than  dairy.  It  costs  no  morS  to  make  a  good 
article  than  an  inferior  one,  and  when  this  fact  is  fully  ap- 
preciated, thousands  of  dollars  will  be  saved  annually  to  the 
dairyman  farmer. 

Milk-room. — The  best  milk-room  is  one  through  which 
a  stream  of  pure  spring  water  flows,  and  a  reservoir  under 
the  "  pan  rack  "  is  very  desirable.  When  this  cannot  be 
had,  select  a  room  or  building  on  the  north  side  of  the 
house,  through  which  fresh  air  can  freely  circulate.  If  a 
cellar  is  chosen,  it  should  be  dry  and  thoroughly  ventilated 
by  large  latticed  windows  and  doors.  No  decaying  vegeta- 
bles should  be  allowed  to  remain  in  it,  as  the  milk  and 
cream  easily  become  tainted.     Close  and  damp  cellars  are 


392  BUTTER   AND    CHEESE-MAKING. 

entirely  unfitted  for  a  milk-room,  and  should  not  be  used. 
The  temperature  of  the  milk-room  should  be  as  uniform 
as  possible,  ranging  from  55°  to  65°.  When  the  weather  is 
cold,  a  fire  should  be  kept  in  a  stove  on  which  a  basin  of 
pure  water  is  placed,  to  prevent  the  air  from  becoming  so 
dry  as  to  form  a  crust  on  the  cream,  "When  too  warm  the 
temperature  can  be  reduced  by  hanging  wet  linen  sheets 
near  the  doors  and  windows,  the  lower  edges  of  which  dip 
into  a  vessel  of  water. 

Cleanliness. — In  every  department  of  butter-making  the 
utmost  cleanliness  should  be  observed.  Milk  and  cream 
rapidly  absorb  noxious  gases,  and  are  especially  affected  by 
the  acids  and  gases  which  arise  from  the  decomposition  of 
sour  milk  or  cream.  Every  utensil  used  in  connection  with 
the  dairy  should  be  scalded  every  time  used  in  boiling 
water,  in  which,  occasionally,  a  small  piece  of  bicarbonate 
of  soda  has  been  dissolved.  All  traces  of  milk  or  cream 
accidently  spilled  on  the  floor  should  be  carefully  removed. 

Setting  ths  Milk. — As  soon  as  the  milk  is  drawn  from  the 
cow  it  should  be  strained  into  the  setting  pans,  to  a  depth 
of  not  over  two  inches.  The  complete  raising  of  the  cream, 
especially  in  warm  weather,  is  thus  greatly  facilitated.  In 
summer  the  temperature  of  the  milk  should  be  reduced  as 
soon  as  possible  to  about  62°.  Powdered  ice  put  into  the 
pail  before  straining  is  best ;  setting  the  pail  in  cold  spring 
or  well-water  for  a  few  minutes  will  answer.  A  small 
piece  of  crystallized  soda  about  the  size  of  a  common  acorn, 


UNWt.^ 


BUTTER    AND    CHEESE-MAKING.  393 

dissolved  in  a  little  water,  put  into  each  pail  of  milk  before 
straining,  to  correct  the  acidity  as  it  is  formed,  will  increase 
the  quantity  of  cream,  and  improve  the  quality  of  the  but- 
ter. Milk,  if  kept  at  the  proper  temperature,  need  not  stand 
over  thirty-six  hours.  If  the  cream  does  not  rise  in  that 
time,  the  quality  of  the  butter  will  be  impaired  by  the  for- 
mation of  a  bitter  acid,  which  gives  to  the  butter  a  dis- 
agreeable flavor.  In  winter  the  quantity  of  cream  will  be 
increased,  and  its  quality  improved,  by  bringing  the  milk  to 
a  temperature  of  about  120°  before  setting. 

Cream. — As  soon  as  the  cream  is  taken  from  the  milk  it 
should  be  placed  in  stone  jars  or  tin  pails  and  set  in  a  cool 
place.  Sprinkle  a  small  handful  of  fine  salt  over  the  top  of 
the  cream,  and  let  it  stand  until  churned.  Should  there 
be  any  milk  at  the  bottom  of  the  jar  it  should  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  cream,  for  the  cheesy  particles  of  the  sour 
milk  become  mixed  with  the  butter  during  the  process  of 
churning,  and  give  it  the  white  cheesy  appearance  which 
is  sometimes  observed  when  the  butter  "  comes  white."  The 
cheese  decomposes  upon  exposure  to  the  air,  and  renders 
the  butter  rancid.  Such  butter  should  never  be  packed 
with  the  good,  for  it  will  surely  spoil  the  whole  ;  "  a  little 
leaven  will  leaven  the  whole  lump." 

Churning. — The  proper  temperature  at  which  to  churn 

cream  is  from  55°  to  60°,  and  care  should  be  taken  that  the 

cream  be  "  washed  down  "  so  that  all  will  orranulate  at  the 

same  time.     When  the  butter  "  has  come  "  to  the  size  of 

17* 


394  BUTl^ER    AND   CHEESE-MAKING. 

peas,  draw  or  pour  off  the  buttermilk,  and  pour  into  the 
churn  a  pail  of  cool  water,  and  thoroughly  "  gather  "  by  the 
aid  of  the  "  dasher  "  the  butter  into  a  compact  mass ;  after 
which  remove  it  to  the  butter-bowl.  It  should  be  again 
washed  until  the  water  is  free  from  the  least  trace  of  milki- 
ness,  and  then  salted.  Use  the  best  Ashton  salt,  and  if  free 
from  water  one-half  pound  of  salt  is  sufficient  for  10  pounds 
of  butter.  Common  salt  should  never  be  used,  for  it  con- 
tains impurities  which  injure  the  butter.  The  cheapest 
salt  in  this  case  is  certainly  not  the  most  economical.  While 
the  salt  is  being  worked  in,  if  too  soft  let  it  stand  in  a  cool 
place  not  over  three  or  four  hours,  then  work  again  and 
pack.  While  working,  absorb  all  the  moisture  from  the 
butter  with  a  sponge  covered  by  a  linen  cloth,  previously 
moistened  in  cold  water,  and  continue  to  work  until  all  the 
brine  is  absorbed.  ]^o  milky  brine  *  should  be  allowed  to 
remain  in  the  butter,  for  it  decomposes  and  injures  it. 
During  the  process  of  working  the  temperature  of  the  butter 
should  not  be  higher  than  55°  or  58°.  When  it  becomes 
warmer  than  this  it  looses  its  waxy,  granular  appearance, 
and  becomes  sticky  and  greasy.  When  the  salt  is  not 
thoroughly  worked  in,  the  butter  will  have  a  streaked  or 
marbled  appearance. 

Paching. — Place  no  undissolved  salt  in  the  bottom  of  the 

*  "We  have  known  those  who  would  not  work  the  brine  out  of  the  butter 
"because,"  say  they,  "it  will  weigh  less  ;"  mistaken  shrewdness,  to  gain  a 
penny  they  lose  a  pound.  That  it  is  necessary  to  leave  brine  in  the  butter  to 
"  keep  it "  is  a  great  mistake. 


BUTTER    AND    CHEESE-MAKLNG.  395 

tub  or  pail,  unless  covered  with  a  cloth  so  the  butter  cannot 
come  in  contact  with  it.  If  this  caution  is  not  observed 
when  sold,  four  or  five  pounds  of  butter  is  thus  rendered 
conriparatively  w^orthless.  Never  pack  a  poor  "  churning  " 
with  the  good  butter,  thinking  it  will  not  be  found  out.  The 
sale  of  many  a  good  firkin  of  butter  is  spoiled  by  a  few 
pounds  of  poor  butter  becoming  rancid  in  the  centre  or  bot- 
tom, wdiich  taints  the  w^hole  package.  If  there  is  any  but- 
ter that  is  even  suspicious  put  it  by  itself. 

Select  neat  pails,  tubs,  or  firkins  made  of  white  oak,  and 
cleanse  them  by  placing  in  each  about  a  pound  of  the 
common  bicarbonate  of  soda,  and  then  filling  with  boiling 
w^ater,  letting  the  water  remain  for  twenty-four  hours.  Great 
care  should  be  used  in  cleansing  pails  that  are  to  be  re-filled,* 
as  they  are  usually  bedaubed  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  with 
rancid  butter.  A  neglect  of  this  precaution  w^ill  often  cause 
great  loss.  Butter  until  the  first  of  June  should  be  packed 
in  pails  or  tubs  and  shipped  as  soon  as  made.  This  butter 
will  keep  sweet  only  a  short  time.  As  soon  as  the 
weather  becomes  too  warm  to  ship  w^ithout  risk,  pack  in 
firkins,  being  careful  to  exclude  the  air  as  far  as  possible 
while  packing.  When  the  firkin  is  filled  to  within  an  inch 
of  the  top,  dissolve  tw^o  tablespoonfuls  of  white  coffee 
sugar,  and  a  piece  of  saltpetre  about  the  size  of  a  common 
bean,  in   sufficient   strong   brine  to  cover  the  butter   and 

*  Pails  or  tubs  after  being  once  used,  if  properly  cleansed,  are  preferable 
to  new  ones. 


396  BUTTER   AND   CHEESE-MAKING. 

exclude  the  air.  Place  it  in  a  cool  dry  cellar,  and  do  not 
disturb  it  until  ready  to  be  shipped.  In  the  fall  the  butter 
should  be  packed  in  pails  or  tubs  and  sold  as  fresh  butter. 
An  air-tight  butter  pail  or  tub  is  very  desirable  for  ship- 
ping spring  and  fall  butter. 

Test  of  good  hutter. — Good  butter  should  have  a  granular, 
waxy  consistency,  and  a  rich  yellow  color,  except  in  the 
winter  and  spring,  when  the  color  is  of  a  pale  yellow  or 
nearly  white.  When  cut  it  should  not  soil  the  polished 
blade  of  the  knife,  and  the  cut  surfaces  should  be  free  from 
a  dewy  appearance.  The  taste  and  smell  should  be  entirely 
free  from  the  slightest  trace  of  rancidity,  for  if  not,  however 
good  otherwise,  when  exposed  to  the  air  for  a  few  days  it  will 
become  almost  worthless.  The  flavor  of  butter  is  various, 
generally  depending  upon  the  season,  the  water,  the  food 
of  the  cows,  &c.  The  preference  is  merely  a  matter  of 
choice.  If  butter  upon  being  cut  or  repacked  is  covered 
with  small  drops  of  milky  brine,  it  shows  that  it  has  not 
been  sufficiently  washed  and  worked,  and  although  sweet  it 
will  not  remain  so  if  exposed  to  the  air.  When  opened 
for  use  it  should  be  immediately  covered  with  a  strong 
brine.  When  it  is  sticky  or  greasy,  it  shows  that  it  was  too 
warm  while  being  churned  and  worked,  or  has  been  over- 
heated since.  Such  butter  is  rancid,  or  will  become  so  as 
soon  as  opened. 

Setting-pan. — To  insure  a  perfect  separation  of  the  cream 
from  the  milk  a  setting-pan  has  been  successfully  used  in 


BUTTER    AND    CHEESE-MAKLNG.  397 

England.  It  consists  of  a  large  tin  pan  about  four  inches  deep, 
holding  from  four  to  six  pails  of  milk.  It  may  either  set 
on  a  table  or  float  in  a  reservoir  of  running  spring  water. 
Where  running  water  is  not  to  be  had,  the  proper  tempera- 
ture may  be  obtained  by  the  dripping  of  melting  ice.  At 
one  end  is  a  tube  covered  with  a  line  strainer  to  prevent  the 
escape  of  the  cream,  through  which  the  milk  is  to  be  drawn 
off,  leaving  the  cream  in  the  pan.  All  the  cream  may  be 
secured  by  rinsing  the  pan  in  a  little  warm  water. 

The  Cheese  Dairy. — The  superiority  of  factory  cheese 
is  entirely  due  to  the  great  care  exercised  in  its  manufacture. 
But  little  cheese  is  now  made  by  private  dairies,  for  it  can  be 
better  and  more  economically  manufactured  at  the  factory. 
With  proper  management  it  is  more  profitable  for  those  who 
do  not  live  near  a  cheese  factory  to  make  butter,  unless  they 
provide  themselves  with  all  the  necessary  apparatus. 

Rich  Cheese. — The  richness  of  cheese  varies  in  propor- 
tion to  the  amount  of  the  butter  that  remains  entangled  in 
the  curd.  The  following  brief  directions  are  from  a  practi- 
cal cheesemaker: — 

•'  When  two  milkings  are  united,  strain  the  evening's 
milk  and  cool  by  means  of  pieces  of  ice  dropped  into  the 
pails  before  straining.  In  the  morning  take  off  all  the 
cream,  mix  it  with  twice  the  quantity  of  new  milk.  Add 
warm  water  enough  to  raise  it  to  the  temperature  of  98°. 
Hub  annatto  through  a  silk  cloth  sufficient  to  make  the  curd 
the  color  of  rich  cream.     Into  this  put  rennet  sufficient  tO' 


398  BUTTER   AND    CHEESE-MAKING. 

curd  in  35  minutes.  Stir  the  whole  into  the  milk  pre- 
viously raised  to  the  temperature  of  85°.  The  milk  should 
be  warmed  by  means  of  a  pail  of  hot  water  set  into  it,  but 
never  bj  putting  it  over  the  fire,  for  the  least  burning  of 
the  milk  will  spoil  the  cheese.  While  the  curd  is  setting, 
cover  with  a  cloth  to  prevent  the  surface  from  cooling. 
The  method  of  cutting,  scalding,  and  pressing  depends 
upon  the  varieties  of  cheese  to  be  manufactured.  About  ^ 
of  a  pound  of  the  best  Ashton  salt  is  sufficient  for  20  lbs. 
of  curd.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  whey  be  entirely 
expressed." 

The  different  varieties  of  cheese  come  to  market  under 
the  names  of  Chedder,  Cheshire,  and  Gloucester.  These 
are  English  cheese.  The  Dunlop  cheese  is  from  Scotland. 
The  Dutch  cheese  is  made  in  the  north  of  Holland.  The 
Parmesan  cheese  is  made  in  Italy.  Factory  cheese  is  the 
best  manufactured  in  this  country,  some  of  it  being  equal  to 
the  English.  The  private  dairy  cheese  is  of  every  grade  and 
quality,  from  the  richest  Chedder  to  that  made  of  skim-milk. 

TheririometeT . — In  the  butter  and  cheese  dairy  the  ther- 
mometer should  be  a  constant  companion.  Those  who 
trust  to  sensations  are  not  aware  how  easily  they  may  be 
deceived.  Let  a  person  put  one  hand  in  cold  water,  the 
other  into  warm,  then  both  into  another  vessel,  and  it  will 
feel  warm  to  one  hand  and  cold  to  the  other.  The  only 
certain  guide  is  the  thermometer ;  its  cost  is  but  a  trifle,  it 
will  save  many  dollars  annually. 


BUTTER   AND    CHEESE-MAKING.  399 

Ice-house. — Next  in  importance  to  the  thermometer  is 
the  ice-house.  Many  farmers  say  "I  can't  afford  it." 
They  should  say  "  I  can't  afford  to  be  without  it."  It  will 
save  three  times  its  cost  every  year.  The  method  of  build- 
ing the  following  is  so  simple,  and  involves  so  trifling  an 
expense  that  no  man  need  have  an  excuse. 

Select  a  place  on  the  north  side  of  some  building ;  lay  a 
floor  twelve  feet  square  on  scantlings,  one  foot  from  the 
ground.  Set  firmly  in  the  ground,  near  each  corner,  two 
posts,  from  four  to  six  inches  square,  and  about  eight  or  ten 
feet  long.  When  the  weather  becomes  cold,  place  on  the 
floor  saw-dust,  tan-bark,  or  rye-straw,  to  the  depth  of  eight 
or  ten  inches.  On  the  top,  place  another  floor  of  the  same 
size,  putting  a  curb  inside  the  posts  to  keep  the  filling  be- 
tween the  floors  in  its  place.  Next  make  a  curb  ten  feet 
square  and  six  inches  deep,  and  fasten  the  corners  with 
common  gate-hooks.  On  a  cold  day  place  the  curb  on  the 
centre  of  the  floor,  put  in  two  inches  of  tan-bark,  and  dash 
water  over  the  bottom  until  it  forms  a  coat  of  ice  that  will 
not  leak.  Fill  the  curb  with  water  and  let  it  stand  until 
frozen  solid.  With  boiling  water  thaw  the  curb  loose,  raise 
it  to  the  top  of  the  frozen  mass,  fill  and  freeze  as  before. 
Continue  so  doing  until  the  mass  is  of  the  desired  height. 
Place  boards  on  the  inside  of  the  posts,  and  fill  the  space 
with  tan-bark  or  rye-straw  ;  nail  boards  on  the  outside  of 
the  posts  and  fill  the  space  w4th  rye-straw ;  cover  the  top 
with  tan-bark  to  the  depth  of  ten  inches.     Over  the  whole 


400 


BUTTER    AND    CHEESE-MAKING. 


put  a  roof,  to  shield  from  tlie  sun  and  rain.  Cut  and  take 
the  ice  from  the  top.  Ice  can  be  thus  kept  the  entire 
season.  If  a  stream  of  running  water  can  be  turned  into 
the  curb,  the  labor  of  filling  will  be  much  lessened. 


SOILi:f^G  CATTLE. 

This  is  a  rather  unmeaning  expression,  and  its  origin  is 
no  more  clear  than  is  the  fitness  of  its  application ;  still  it 
has  come  into  such  general  use  that  it  is  now  too  late  to 
change  it. 

It  is  applied  to  the  feeding  of  cattle  in  yards  or  in  sta- 
bles, with  grass  or  other  green  fodder,  cut  and  hauled  to 
them. 

This  practice  is  very  rapidly  growing  in  favor  in  all 
localities  where  land  is  very  high  priced,  where  manure  is 
largely  used,  where  the  finer  class  of  animals  are  kept,  and 
where  for  any  reason  it  is  desired  to  keep  a  large  stock  on 
a  small  place.  It  is  the  best  foundation  of  what  is  called 
High  Fai'ining. 

It  has  been  found  by  experiment  that  if  a  field  bearing 
luxuriant  grass  or  clover  is  divided  into  two  equal  parts, 
one  half  being  used  as  pasture  and  the  crop  of  the  other 
being  cut  and  fed  in  the  stable  as  often  as  it  grows  to  a  suf- 
ficient height,  this  latter  half  will  support,  for  the  same 
time,  four  times  as  many  animals  of  equal  weight  as  will 
the  depastured  portion ;  and  while  the  usual^  allowance  of 
pasture  land  is  at  the  rate  of  two  acres  for  each  cow,  tlie 
allowance  of  land  in  soiling,  where  the  system  is  practised 
in  the  best  manner,  is  at  the  rate  of  only  one-half  of  an 
acre  £br  each  cow. 


402  SOILING   CATTLE. 

Of  course,  this  would  not  hold  good  on  ordinary  land 
which  had  been  in  no  way  prepared  for  the  practice,  but 
after  one  or  two  years'  preparation  by  judicious  use  of 
the  manure  made  by  the  animals  fed,  and  by  the  aid  of 
proper  management,  any  fair  land  will  support,  on  the  sys- 
tem of  soiling,  four  times  as  much  stock  as  if  they  grazed 
upon  it  constantly  and  voided  upon  it  all  of  their  manure. 

It  was  for  a  long  time  questioned,  and  very  naturally 
too,  whether  cattle  would  remain  in  good  health  if  they 
were  deprived  of  the  exercise  which  they  necessarily  take 
in  getting  their  own  food  in  the  fields ;  but  ample  experi- 
ence has  proved  that,  if  they  are  allowed  good  yards  in 
which  to  exercise  for  a  short  time,  once  or  twice  a  day,  they 
keep  in  better  condition  and  are  less  liable  to  disease  than 
when  they  are  exposed  to  the  various  changes  of  the  weather 
in  the  fields. 

It  is  also  sometimes  objected  that  this  treatment  is  an 
unnatural  or  an  artificial  one.  To  this  the  reply  is  that  our 
domestic  animals  are  artificial  productions.  In  nature  we 
see  no  working  oxen,  and  no  cows  give  during  the  whole 
year  a  tenth  part  of  the  quantity  of  milk  that  cows  have 
been  forced  to  give  in  a  state  of  domestication. 

With  the  writer,  the  soiling  of  cattle  is  not  a  matter  of 
theory.  He  has  adopted  the  system  on  his  own  farm,  and 
has  sufficient  evidence  in  his  own  practice  of  its  substantial 
advantages. 

Perhaps  the  most  practical  way  to  give  an  idea  of  the 


SOILING   CATTLE.  403 

manner  in  which  stock  is  managed  under  the  soiling  system 
will  be  to  describe  the  operations  as  there  carried  out.^ 

The  farmf  comprises  sixty  acres,  lying  in  a  nearly  square 
body,  and  all  in  one  field.  Adjoining  the  main  farm  there 
is  a  small  field  in  which  to  pasture  calves  during  their  first 
summer  only,  but  it  is  not  intended  that  the  older  animals 
shall  ever  feed  except  in  their  stalls. 

In  the  centre  of  the  farm  there  is  an  enclosure  of  about 
four  acres,  within  which  are  concentrated  all  of  the  farm 
buildings ;  outside  of  this  there  is  nothing  to  interfere  with 
cultivation — no  interior  fences,  rocks,  nor  trees. 

The  barn-yards  occupy  two  acres  of  what  was  formerly 
an  apple-orchard,  and  in  the  middle  of  this  stands  the  barn 
(40  ft.  X  100  ft.).  This  has  a  cellar  under  the  whole  for  the 
accumulation  of  manure,  and  (one  corner  of  it)  for  the  storage 
of  roots.  The  main  floor — the  whole  extent  of  the  building 
— is  occupied  by  two  rows  of  stalls,  the  animals  facing  a  cen- 
tral passage-way,  through  the  entire  length  of  which  there 
runs  a  railway  with  a  car,  for  distributing  the  food.  The 
next  floor  above  is  used  for  the  storage  of  hay  and  grain  and 
of  implements,  and  for  the  cutting  and  steaming  of  food 
in  winter.  Each  floor  and  the  cellar  can  be  entered  by 
loaded  teams. 

On  the  cattle  floor  there  is  a  system  of  water-troughs 
which  are  constantly  supplied   from  a  tank  on    the   floor 

*  To  make  this  description  more  complete,  a  few  iraprovemeuts  wliich  are 
contemplated  for  the  coming  year  are  spoken  of  as  though  now  in  operation, 
f  Ogden  Farm,  Newport,  R.  I. 


404  SOILING    CATTLE. 

above,  which  is  filled  by  a  wind-mill,  from  a  running 
spring.  By  this  means  water  is  always  kept  within  reach 
every  animal. 

The  floor  is  divided  into  four  principal  parts,  separated 
from  each  other  by  bars  which  run  (one  on  each  side  of  the 
barn)  from  the  rear  of  the  stalls  to  the  wall ;  and  each  of 
these  divisions  has  its  own  door,  communicating  with  a  yard 
nearly  half  an  acre  in  size,  surrounded  by  a  four-foot  stone 
wall,  and  sufliciently  shaded  by  the  remains  of  the  former 
orchard.  Each  set  of  animals  has  its  own  quarters  and  its 
own  ample  exercising  ground,  so  that  all  danger  from 
over-crowding  is  avoided. 

They  are  turned  out  for  exercise  in  pleasant  weather  at  8 
A.M.  and  at  2  p.m.,  and  are  kept  out  (by  closing  the  doors) 
for  about  two  hours  each  time.  If  the  doors  are  left  open 
they  return  to  their  stalls  almost  immediately.  Being 
abundantly  fed,  they  show  no  disposition  to  move  about,  and 
I  am  satisfied  that  they  give  more  milk  and  keep  in  better 
condition  than  if  they  were  allowed  the  best  pasture  without 
shelter,  even  in  the  summer  time. 

Five  times  a  day  they  are  given  as  much  green  fodder  as 
they  will  eat.  This  is  cut  in  the  field,  loaded  on  to  a  cart,  and 
hauled  to  the  upper  floor  of  the  barn,  where  it  is  dumped 
through  a  trap-door  into  the  car,  by  which  it  is  carried  to 
the  stalls.  The  manure  is  dropped  through  an  open  slat- 
floor,  and  through  scuttles,  into  the  cellar,  whence  it  is 
drawn  in   wagons  directly  to  the  field,  having  been  well 


SOILmG   CA^rTLE.  405 

worked  over  by  hogs  while  in  the  cellar.  Thus  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  labor  of  attending  to  a  large  stock  of  cattle  is 
reduced  to  the  lowest  possible  amount. 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  CROPS   FOR   SOILING. 

The  amount  of  land  that  it  is  necessary  to  appropriate  for 
the  supply  of  fodder  for  each  animal  must,  of  course,  depend 
on  the  quality  of  the  land  and  on  the  degree  to  which  its 
productiveness  is  forced. 

Under  all  ordinary  circumstances,  one-half  acre  of  land,  in 
good  heart  and  in  good  tilth,  should  be  allowed  for  each 
full-grown  milch  cow  of  the  oj'dinary  breeds  (more  for  short- 
horns), but,  under  high  cultivation,  this  will  allow  a  consider- 
able amount  of  the  produce  to  be  cut  for  winter  use. 
The  regular  soiling  crops  are  the  following  : — 
Winter  Rye, 
Cabbages, 
Oats, 
Clover, 
Grass,  and 
Indian  corn. 
Many  other  crops  are  available,  such  as  Hungarian  grass 
or  millet,  wheat,   Jerusalem  artichoke,    sainfoin,   &c.,  but 
the  foregoing  are  the  regular  dependence  of  American  far- 
mei-s,  and  are  the  best  for  common  use. 

The  best  essay  that  has  yet  been  written  in  this  country 


406  SOILING    CATTLE. 

on  the  subject  of  "  soiling  "  was  prepared  for  the  Massachu- 
setts Agricultural  Society  by  the  Hon.  Josiah  Quincy,  and 
was  published  in  the  Journal  of  that  Society  for  1820. 
His  recommendation  is  as  follows : — 

"1.  As  early  in  April  as  the  state  of  the  land  will  permit, 
which  is  usually  between  the  5th  and  the  10th,  on  properly 
prepared  land,  sow  oats  at  the  rate  of  four  bushels  to  the 
acre. 

"  2.  About  the  20th  of  the  same  month,  sow  oats  or  barley, 
at  the  same  rate  per  acre,  in  like  quantity  and  proportions. 

"  3.  Early  in  May,  sow,  in  like  manner,  either  of  the 
above  grains. 

"  4.  Between  the  10th  and  the  15th  of  May,  sow  Indian 
corn  (the  flat  Southern  being  the  best)  in  drills,  three  bush- 
els to  the  acre,  in  like  quantity  and  proportions. 

"  5.  About  the  25th  of  May  sow  corn  in  like  quantity  and 
proportions. 

"  6.  About  the  5th  of  June  repeat  the  sowing  of  corn. 

"  7.  After  the  last-mentioned  sowing,  barley  should  be 
sown  in  the  above-mentioned  quantity  and  proportions,  in 
succession,  on  the  15th  and  25th  of  June,  and  on  the  1st 
of,  or  early  in  July ;  barley  being  the  best  qualified  to  resist 
the  early  frosts." 

Mr.  Quincy  depended  on  the  mowing  of  the  best  of 
his  grass  land  to  carry  his  stock  through  the  month  of  June, 
or  from  the  earliest  pasturing  season  to  the  1st  of  July, 


SOILING   CATTLE.  407 

when  lie  expected  his  first  sowing  of  oats  to  be  ready  for  the 
scythe.  After  the  first  killing  frost,  he  depended  on  the 
tops  of  about  twelve  acres  of  root  crops,  for  the  use  of 
fifteen  cows. 

The  plan  which  I  have  adopted  is  a  modification  of  the 
above,  and  is  as  follows  (for  twelve  cows)  : — 

1.  Early  in  the  autumn  sow  three  acres  of  winter  rye,  to 
be  cut  from  May  15tli  to  June  15th. 

2.  Early  in  April,  three  acres  oats,  to  be  cut  from  June 
15th  to  July  1st. 

3.  Late  in  April,  two  acres  oats  or  barley,  to  be  cut  from 
July  1st  to  July  15th. 

4.  Early  in  May,  two  acres  oats  or  barley,  to  be  cut  from 
July  15tli  to  August  10th. 

5.  Middle  of  May,  two  acres  corn,  to  be  cut  from  August 
10th  to  September  1st. 

6.  Middle  of  June,  the  three  acres  from  which  rye  has 
been  cut  to  be  sown  with  corn,  to  be  cut  from  September 
1st  until  September  20th. 

7.  Early  in  July,  the  first  three  acres  sown  with  oats  to  be 
resown  with  barley,  to  be  cut  from  September  20th  until  the 
harvest  of  roots  and  cabbages  furnishes  a  stock  of  green 
refuse,  which  will  suffice  until  winter  feeding  commences. 

This  is  an  allowance  of  twelve  acres  for  twelve  cows,  and 
assumes  that  the  latter  end  of  the  season  will  be  helped  out 
by  root  tops,  &c.   The  reason  for  appropriating  so  much  land 


408  SOILING   CATTLE. 

is  that  the  soil  is  not  yet  in  sufficiently  good  condition  to  in- 
sure an  ample  supply  from  a  much  smaller  area.  In  a  season 
of  extraordinary  drought  the  whole  of  the  product  may  be 
consumed,  but  in  any  ordinary  year  a  very  large  part  of  it 
would  be  in  excess,  to  be  cured  and  stored  for  winter  use, 
and  to  furnish  a  supply  of  dry  food,  with  which  occasion- 
ally to  alternate  with  the  fresh  fodder,  to  prevent  the  too  great 
relaxation  of  the  bowels  which  a  free  use  of  succulent  food 
sometimes  causes. 

In  September  three  acres  of  the  four  comprising  Nos.  4 
and  5  should  be  sown  with  winter  rye  for  the  following 
spring's  use,  and  the  rotation  should  follow  in  regular  order. 
If  all  of  the  manure  made  in  the  soiling  season  were  to  be 
used  on  these  twelve  acres  year  after  year,  I  am  satisfied 
that  they  might  be  made  in  time  to  support,  during  the 
whole  of  the  usual  pasturing  season,  thirty  milch  cows,  or 
^ve  cows  for  each  two  acres. 

In  my  own  case,  as  one  of  my  reasons  for  adopting  the 
system  of  soiling  has  been  that  it  is  the  best  help  in  bring- 
ing up  a  worn-out  farm,  I  shall  each  year  raise  my  forage 
on  fresh  land,  so  as  to  give  the  whole  place  the  benefit  of 
the  treatment. 

Of  course,  a  rule  which  will  apply  in  one  region  may  not 
be  the  best  for  another,  and  each  farmer  must  decide  for 
himself  the  extent  to  which  he  can  profitably  adopt  the  sys- 
tem on  his  farm,  and  also  what  crops  will  best  accomplish 
the  desired  end  in  his  own  case. 


SOILING   CATTLE.  409 

Where  it  is  desirable  to  plough  as  little  as  possible,  clover 
and  grass  may  with  advantage  enter  much  more  largely  into 
the  arrangement. 

Two  general  principles,  however,  may  be  stated  as  appli- 
cable to  all  of  the  more  temperate  regions  of  our  Northern 
States — 

1.  The  earliest  abundant  food  will  be  secured  by  the  use 
of  winter  rye. 

2.  The  best  and  most  abundant  food  for  the  later  summer 
and  earlier  autimin  time  will  be  secured  by  the  use  of  Indian 
corn. 

ARGUMENTS   IN   FAVOR   OF  SOILING. 

Mr.  Quincy  states  the  following  as  the  leading  advan- 
tages of  this  system : — 

"  1st.  The  saving  of  land. 

"  2d.  The  saving  of  fencing, 

"  3d.  The  economizing  of  food.   ^ 

"  4th.  The  better  condition  and  greater  comfort  of  the 
cattle. 

"  5th.  The  greater  product  of  milk. 

"  6th.  The  attainment  of  manure." 

On  the  subject  of  the  3d  item — the  economy  of  food — he 
says  :  "  There  are  six  ways  by  which  beasts  destroy  the  ar- 
ticle destined  for  their  food — 1.  By  eating ;  2.  By  walking ; 

3.  By  dunging ;  4.  By  staling ;  5.  By  lying  down  ;  6.  By 

18 


410  SOILING    CATTLE. 

breathing  on  it.     Of  these  six,  the  first  only  is  useful.     All 
the  others  are  wasteful." 

The  other  points  he  elucidates  with  equal  force,  but  at 
too  great  length  for  full  quotation  here. 

The  statement  made  above  that  a  milch  cow  may  be  kept 
during  the  ordinary  pasturing  season  upon  the  produce  of 
one-half  acre  of  land;  while  of  land  of  the  same  character  at 
least  two  acres  would  be  necessary  on  the  pasturage  system, 
is  sufiicient  to  illustrate  the  saving  of  land.  Yet  this  state- 
ment, which  will  be  supported  by  the  testimony  of  all  who 
practise  the  system  on  land  of  good  quality,  is  far  below  the 
estimate  of  many  who  have  had  a  lifelong  experience  of  soiling, 
in  Europe.  Some  of  them  place  the  proportion  in  favor  of 
soiling  as  high  as  1  to  7.  Of  course  the  amount  of  stock 
which  may  be  fed  from  the  produce  of  a  single  acre  depends 
very  much  on  the  manner  in  which  that  acre  is  cultivated, 
and  the  question  of  the  cost  of  labor  must  determine  whether 
it  is  or  is  not  profitable  to  force  the  production  beyond  a 
given  extent. 

As  to  fencing,  it  is  only  necessary  to  remind  nearly  every 
farmer  of  his  own  experience  of  the  first  cost  of  building, 
and  of  the  yearly  cost  of  repairing  the  fences  of  his  own 
farm,  and  to  say  that  by  the  soiling  system,  when  completely 
carried  out,  all  interior  fences  may  arid  should  he  entirely 
dispensed  with. 

Add  to  the  question  of  expense,  the  fact  that  useless  head- 
lands and  their  nurseries  of  noxious  weeds  are  got  rid  of. 


SOILING   CATTLE.  411 

and  that  the  plough  can  be  driven,  if  desired,  straight  through 
from  one  side  of  the  farm  to  the  other,  and  the  argument 
needs  no  re-enforcement. 

Concerning  the  condition  of  the  cattle,  the  following  is 
stated  by  Quincj : — "  One  writer  asserts  that  he  has  kept  a 
large  herd  for  several  years  in  this  way,  and  during  the 
whole  time  '  he  never  had  an  animal  essentially  sick,  had 
never  one  die,  and  had  never  one  miscarry.' "  The  general 
result  of  the  experience  of  hundreds  of  farmers  in  Europe, 
and  of  considerable  experience  in  America,  is,  that  cattle 
are  really  better  off'  in  every  way,  under  the  protection  of 
the  soiling  barn,  with  its  ample  and  regularly  supplied 
food,  and  with  the  advantage  of  daily  currying  and  exer- 
cise, than  when  left  to  shift  for  themselves  exposed  to  the 
vicissitudes  of  the  weather. 

The  quantity  of  milk  may  never  be  so  large  as  it  is  du- 
ring the  flush  weeks  of  June,  when  the  cows  are  gorging 
their  maiden  appetites  on  rich  grass ;  but  the  consumption 
of  food  from  the  first  of  May  to  the  first  of  November  (and 
consequently  the  yield  of  milk)  will  be  much  greater. 

"  Last,  but  by  no  means  the  least,"  the  question  of  manure 
asserts  its  claim  to  the  fullest  consideration.  Were  it  not 
for  this  item  of  the  calculation  the  arguments  in  favor  of 
soiling  would  lose  more  than  half  their  force. 

The  immense  superiority,  both  in  quality  and  evenness  of 
distribution  over  the  soil,  of  manure  which  is  made  and  kept 
under  cover,  over  that  which  is  dropped  at  random  on  pas- 


412  SOILING    CATTLE. 

ture  fields ;  and  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  apply  it 
when  we  please,  where  we  please,  and  in  such  quantities  as 
we  please,  are  too  well  known  to  all  who  have  to  use  ma- 
nure to  produce  paying  crops,  for  any  argument  on  the  sub- 
ject to  be  necessary.  There  is  no  way  in  which  so  much 
manure  of  such  excellent  quality  can  be  landed  on  the  farm 
without  a  far  greater  outlay  of  money  than  is  necessary  to 
pay  for  all  the  labor  required  for  ploughing,  sowing,  "  tend- 
ing," cutting,  and  hauling  the  food,  and  for  currying  and 
feeding  the  animals  under  the  most  complete  soiling  man- 
agement. 

Of  course  the  manure  argument  does  not  hold  (nor  is 
the  system  of  soiling  to  be  recommended)  for  those  districts 
of  the  West  where  the  laughing  harvest  follows  the  tickling- 
hoe  ;  where  straw  is  burned  in  the  fields,  and  barns  are 
moved  to  get  away  from  the  accumulated  manure.  But  for 
the  older  settled  countries  of  the  East  and  South  (and  for 
the  future  West— the  West  with  its  "  inexhaustible  fertil- 
ity "  exhausted)  it  does  hold,  and  with  such  force  that  as 
population  grows  more  dense— and  farmers  more  wise — it 
alone,  even  if  there  were  no  other  advantage  in  the  system, 
must  in  time  compel  the  rapid  increase  of  the  practice  of 
soiling. 


STEAMIKGTOOD   FOR   STOCK. 

A  more  recent  improvement  than  ''soiling"  in  the  keep- 
ing of  cattle,  on  farms  where  it  is  important  to  make  every 
pound  of  food  tell  with  the  fullest  effect  in  the  production 
of  meat,  muscle,  or  milk  (and  on  what  farm  is  this  not  im- 
portant?), is  the  steaming  of  food  in  winter. 

Although  this  practice  has  been  the  subject  of  much  less 
experiment  than  soiling,  and  is,  consequently,  less  generally 
recognized  as  worthy  of  adoption,  enough  is  known  of  its 
advantages,  both  by  experience  and  from  theory,  to  make 
its  brief  discussion  necessary  to  the  completeness  of  this 
book. 

During  the  past  year  I  have  investigated  the  subject  with 
some  thoroughness,  and  have  determined  to  adopt  it  on  my 
own  farm  ;  and  I  can  hardly  do  better  than  to  give  here 
some  account  of  my  investigations,  in  order  that  my  readers 
may  decide  for  themselves  the  soundness  of  my  reasons  for 
the  determination. 

My  serious  attention  was  first  called  to  the  matter  by  an 
article  in  the  Report  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  for 
1865,  written  by  Mr.  E.  W.  Stewart  of  Korth  Evans,  I^.  Y. 
He  therein  details  his  own  experience  of  ten  years  in  steam- 
ing food  for  a  large  stock  of  cattle  and  horses,  gives  a  suc- 
cinct statement  of  the  reasons  why  steaming  is  beneficial, 


416  STEAMING   FOOD   FOR    STOCK. 

and  sustains  his  own  opinion  by  the  concurrent  testimony 
of  other  practical  farmers  who  have  found  the  practice  bene- 
ficial. 

The  following  are  the  results  of  the  operation  as  stated  by 
Mr.  Stewart  :— 

"1.  It  renders  mouldy  hay,  straw,  and  corn-stalks  per- 
fectly sweet  and  palatable.  Animals  seem  to  relish  straw 
taken  from  a  stack  which  has  been  wet  and  badly  damaged 
for  ordinary  use ;  and  even  in  any  condition,  except  '  dry 
rot,'  steaming  will  restore  its  sweetness.  When  keeping  a 
large  stock,  we  have  often  purchased  stacks  of  straw  which 
would  have  been  worthless  for  feeding  in  the  ordinary  w^ay, 
and  have  been  able  to  detect  no  difference,  after  steaming, 
in  the  smell  or  the  relish  with  which  it  was  eaten. 

"  2.  It  diffuses  the  odor  of  the  bran,  corn-meal,  oil-meal, 
carrots,  or  whatever  is  mixed  with  the  feed,  through  the 
whole  mass  ;  and  thus  it  may  cheaply  be  flavored  to  suit  the 
animal. 

"3.  It  softens  the  tough  fibre  of  the  dry  corn-stalk,  rye- 
straw,  and  other  hard  material,  rendering  it  almost  like 
green  succulent  food,  and  easily  masticated  and  digested  by 
the  animal. 

"4.  It  renders  beans  and  peas  agreeable  food  to  horses,  as 
well  as  other  animals,  and  thus  enables  the  feeder  to  com- 
bine more  nitrogenous  food  in  the  diet  of  his  animals. 

*'  5.  It  enables  the  feeder  to  turn  everything  raised  into 


STEAMING  FOOD  FOR  STOCK.  417 

food  for  his  stock,  without  lessening  the  value  of  his  manure. 
Indeed,  the  manure  made  from  steamed  food  decomposes 
more  readily,  and  is  therefore  more  valuable  than  vi^hen  used 
in  a  fresh  state.  Manure  made  from  steamed  food  is  always 
ready  for  use,  and  is  regarded  by  those  who  have  used  it  as 
much  more  valuable,  for  the  same  bulk,  than  that  made 
from  uncooked  food. 

"  6.  We  have  found  it  to  cure  incipient  heaves  in  horses  ; 
and  horses  having  a  cough  for  several  months  at  pasture, 
have  been  cured  in  two  weeks  on  steamed  food.  It  has  a 
remarkable  effect  on  horses  with  a  sudden  cold  and  in  con- 
stipation. Horses  fed  upon  it  seem  much  less  liable  to  dis- 
ease ;  in  fact,  in  this  respect,  it  seems  to  have  all  the  good 
qualities  of  grass,  the  natural  food  of  animals. 

"  7.  It  produces  a  marked  difference  in  the  appearance  of 
the  animal,  at  once  causing  the  coat  to  become  smooth  and 
of  brighter  color — regulates  the  digestion,  makes  the  animal 
more  contented  and  satisfied,  enables  fattening  stock  to  eat 
their  food  with  less  labor  (and  consequently  requires  less  to 
keep  up  the  animal  heat),  gives  working  animals  time  to  eat 
all  that  is  necessary  for  them  in  the  intervals  of  labor ;  and 
this  is  of  much  importance,  especially  with  horses.  It  also 
enables  the  feeder  to  fatten  animals  in  one-third  less  time. 

"  8.  It  saves  at  least  one-third  of  the  food.  We  have  found 

two  bushels  of  cut  and  cooked  hay  to  satisfy  cows  as  well 

as  three  bushels  of  uncooked  hay,  and  the  manure  in  the 

case  of   the  uncooked  hay  contained   much    more  fibrous 

18* 


418  STB  AMINO   FOOD   FOR    STOCK. 

matter  unutilized  by  tlie  animal.  This  is  more  particularly 
the  case  with  horses." 

Other  publications  on  the  subject  fully  confirm  Mr.  Stew- 
art's estimate,  and  we  commend  his  essay,  which  is  accessi- 
ble to  all,  to  the  careful  attention  of  every  feeder  of  farm 
stock. 

In  January  (1868)  I  visited  the  farm  of  Messrs.  S.  &  D. 
Wells,  at  Wethersfield,  Conn.,  for  the  purpose  of  examining 
their  cow  stable  and  its  fixtures. 

The  leading  features  of  this  establishment  are  a  constant 
water-supply,  and  apparatus  for  cutting  and  steaming  food.''^ 
The  latter  was  introduced  at  a  cost  of  about  $500.  It  com- 
prises a  three-horse  steam-engine  of  very  simple  construction, 
a  tubular  boiler  of  sufficient  capacity  to  run  the  engine,  a 
strong  power  stalk-cutter,  and  a  chest  for  steaming  food. 

There  were  about  thirty  cows  in  the  stable.  They  receive 
steamed  food  morning  and  night,  and  dry  hay  at  noon.  The 
steamed  food  consists  of  hay  of  poor  quality,  straw,  or  corn- 
stalks, cut  to  short  lengths,  sprinkled  until  thoroughly  wet, 
and  then  dusted  with  bran  or  meal,  and  steamed  for  about 
two  hours. 

The  engine  has  power  enough  to  cut  in  a  couple  of  hours 

*  The  water  is  brought  from  a  Hving  spring  and  flows  through  galvanized  iron 
pipes  which  form  the  connections  between  the  bottoms  of  small  iron  troughs 
standing  at  the  head  of  the  partitions  which  divide  each  pair  of  stalls.  The  last 
trough  overflows  through  a  pipe  near  its  top,  and  the  water  wells  up  to  the 
level  of  this  overflow  in  each  trough  of  the  series.  By  this  simple  arrange- 
ment, a  constantly  changing  supply  of  water  is  kept  always  in  front  of  the 
cattle. 


STEAMING    FOOD    FOR    STOCK.  419 

a  supply  sufficient  for  the  whole  week,  and  enough  is  steamed 
at  one  charge  to  last  for  three  or  four  days.  Steam  is  made 
only  twice  in  each  week  (once  for  cutting  and  steaming, 
and  once  for  steaming  only),  and  then  only  for  a  short  time. 

The  steaming  box  is  about  four  feet  square  and  eight  feet 
high.  The  materials  are  put  into  the  box  from  the  floor  above 
that  of  which  the  cow  stable  is  an  extension,  and  are  re- 
moved through  a  door  in  one  of  its  sides  on  the  feeding  floor. 
Elevated  a  short  distance  above  the  bottom,  there  is  a  false 
bottom  perforated  with  many  holes.  The  steam  is  let  in  be- 
low this,  and  is  thus  allowed  to  rise  evenly  through  the 
the  whole  mass. 

The  box  is  made  of  two  thicknesses  of  one-inch,  matched 
spruce  boards  (one  set  running  up  and  down,  and  the  other 
across).  The  doors  are  not  made  with  any  very  great  care 
to  prevent  the  escape  of  steam,  nor  does  it  seem  to  be  con- 
sidered necessary  to  do  more  than  to  have  the  box  strong 
enough  to  hold  its  burden  of  wet  fodder. 

The  Messrs.  Wells  find  that  Mr.  Stewart's  opinion — given 
above — is,  in  all  essential  particulars,  sustained  by  the  re- 
sults of  their  experience.  They  think  that  steaming  adds 
one-half  to  the  feeding  value  of  fodder. 

It  was  what  I  saw  on  their  farm,  more  than  anything  else, 
which  caused  me  to  decide  on  adopting  the  system  in  my 
own  practice.  My  apparatus  is  not  yet  completed,  and  I 
cannot,  therefore,  speak  on  the  subject  with  the  authority  of 
a  successful  experimenter ;  but  from  all  that  I  can  learn,  I 


420  STEAMING    FOOD    FOR    STOCK. 

am  satisfied  that  the  advantages  of  steaming  have  hardly 
been  overrated. 

The  theory  of  the  process  (in  a  nutshell)  is  this :  Cattle 
and  horses  in  a  state  of  nature  live  the  year  round  on  succu- 
lent green  herbage.  When  the  cold  weather  begins  to  cut 
short  the  supply  in  the  more  northern  latitudes,  they  migrate 
toward  the  south.  Man  steps  in  and  keeps  them  in  the 
colder  climate.  He  substitutes  dried  grass  for  fresh  grass. 
Steaming  will,  in  a  great  measure,  restore  hay  to  the  condi- 
tion of  green  grass.  Also,  many  constituents  of  hay,  straw, 
&c.,  are  insoluble  and  indigestible.  By  the  action  of  heat 
and  moisture  they  become  soluble,  or  at  least  are  reduced  to 
a  condition  in  which  they  are  easily  available  to  the  digest- 
ive organs  of  animals.  Starch-grains,  according  to  the  best 
authorities,  are  coated  with  a  layer  or  cuticle  which  resists 
— to  a  great  extent — the  action  of  the  juices  of  the  stomach, 
while  its  interior  parts,  could  they  be  directly  exposed, 
would  readily  be  assimilated ;  therefore,  as  heat  causes  the 
interior  of  the  grains  to  swell  and  burst  their  coating,  ex- 
posing themselves  on  the  surface,  as  the  interior  parts  of  a 
kernel  of  corn  do  in  "  popping,"  the  process  of  steaming 
(or  any  cooking)  makes  the  starchy  part  of  food  more  readily 
available. 

Examinations  of  the  droppings  of  animals  fed  on  cooked 
and  uncooked  food  furnish  results  which  confirm  the  fore- 
going opinion. 

Carefully  conducted   experiments   on   animals   of  equal 


STEAMING    FOOD    FOK    STOCK.  421 

weight,  and  of  like  condition  in  all  respects,  invariably  show 
that  those  which  are  fed  on  cooked  food  take  on  fat,  and 
form  bone  and  muscle  more  rapidly  than  those  which  get 
only  raw  food.  If,  after  a  certain  time,  the  food  is  changed 
— the  cooked  being  given  to  the  animal  that  has  been  receiv- 
ing the  uncooked,  and  vice  versa — the  rapidity  of  growth 
will  change  too.  The  trial  has  often  been  made,  and  the 
result  has  been  invariably  the  same. 

In  fact,  in  all  of  the  essays  and  opinions  on  the  subject  of 
cooking  food  for  domestic  animals,  in  this  country  and  in 
Europe,  I  have  failed  to  find  the  first  one  that  is  not  decid- 
edly favorable. 

Steaming^  of  course,  is  valuable  only  because  it  is  a  means 
of  cooking,  and  the  arguments  in  its  favor  bear  equally  on 
the  subject  ot  hoiling.  Steaming  is  rapidly  coming  into 
use  because  of  its  greater  convenience  and  economy. 

How  to  make  a  Steaming  Apparatus. — Any  device  by 
which  steam  may  be  generated  under  a  very  slight  pressure 
— barely  sufficient  to  cause  it  to  penetrate  the  mass  to  be 
cooked — and  conducted  to  the  vessel  in  which  the  steaming 
is  to  be  done,  will  accomplish  the  desired  purpose ;  but,  of 
course,  the  more  convenient  the  arrangement,  and  the  less 
the  waste  of  steam  (whether  by  condensation  or  otherwise), 
the  more  economically  the  process  may  be  performed,  as  to 
both  time  and  fuel. 

Mr.  Stewart  suggests  a  plan  w^iich,  from  its  cheapness, 
will  answer  a  good  purpose  where  the  stock  to  be  cooked 


422  STEAMING    FOOD    FOli    STOCK. 

for  is  small,  or  where  it  is  desired  to  ex[)eriment  on  a  small 
scale. 

It  is  a  box  made  of  well  jointed  2  inch  pine,  seven  or 
eight  feet  long,  and  about  two  and  a  half  feet  wide,  with  a 
bottom  of  No.  16  sheet  iron,  nailed  securely  on  to  the  lower 
edge  of  the  sides  and  ends,  and  turned  up  a  little  outside  of 
them — say  half  an  inch.  This  box  has  a  false  bottom,  of 
wood  or  iron,  placed  about  three  inches  above  the  fast  bot- 
tom, and  perforated  w^ith  many  small  lioles,  and  a  closely- 
fitting  cover  over  the  top. 
I         It  stands  on  brick  walls  which  do  not  come  quite  so  far 

I     out  as  the  wooden  sides  of  the  box.     At  one  end  of  the 

i 

'     chamber  enclosed  by  these  walls  there  is  a  wood  fire-place, 

'     and  from  the  other  end  a  chimney  rises. 

The  space  between  the  bottom  and  the  false  bottom  is 
partly  filled  with  water,  cut  hay  mixed  wath  meal  or  bran 
is  put  in  the  box  above  the  false  bottom,  the  cover  is  closed, 
and  the  fire  is  started.  The  steam  rises  through  the  per- 
forations in  the  false  bottom,  and  cooks  the  mass  above 
it. 

A  much  more  complete  apparatus  for  steaming,  and  in 
large  practice  a  more  economical  one,  comprises  a  boiler  for 
generating  the  steam,  a  box  in  which  to  place  the  food,  and 
a  wooden,  or  well  protected  steam-pipe  to  connect  the  two. 
The  box  should  have  a  perforated  false  bottom,  and  the  steam 
should  be  introduced  beneath  this,  so  that  it  may  diffuse 
itself  uniformly  through  the  mass. 


STEAMING    FOOD    FOK    STOCK. 


423 


The  boiler  majj  of  course,  be  of  any  pattern  that  will 
secure  the  economical  generation  of  steam.  A  discarded 
engine-boiler  will  answer  every  purpose  if  it  is  strong  enough 
to  bear  a  pressure  of,  say,  five  or  ten  pounds  to  the  inch — a 
slight  pressure  being  necessary  to  force  the  steam  through 
the  mass  of  hay. 

D.  R.  Prindle's  Agricultural  Boiler,  which  is  shown  in 
the  accompanying  cut,  is  admirably  adapted  for  this  use. 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


'  Prindle's  Agricultural  Steamer  and  Cauldron  (shown  in 
Figs.  1  and  2)  is  the  invention  of  Mr.  D.  E.  Prindle,  of  East 
Bethany,  New  York,  and  is  largely  manufactured  by  Messrs. 
Savery  &  Co.  of  Philadelphia. 

Its  popularity  seems  to  be  rapidly  increasing,  and  there  is 
no  question  that  it  is  the  best  steaming  apparatus  for  the  use 


424  STEAMING    FOOD    FOB    STOCK. 

of  all  farmers  who  do  not  employ  steam-engines  that  has 
yet  been  invented. 

It  consists  of  a  cauldron  set  over  a  furnace  arranged  to  burn 
either  wood  or  coal,  and  furnished  with  a  dome  which  fits 
closely  over  it  and  is  keyed  down  so  as  to  make  a  steam-joint 
It  is  provided  with  a  test-cock  to  show  when  it  needs  the 
addition  of  water,  a  safety-valve  which  is  also  a  vacuum 
valve,  a  funnel  for  filling,  and  one  or  more  pipes  to  convey 
the  steam  to  the  cooking-boxes. 

Aside  from  its  use  in  steaming  fodder  for  cattle,  it  may  be 
Uftcd  to  heat  water  to  scald  hogs,  or  for  other  purposes,  to 
warm  buildings,  to  cook  roots  or  meal  for  hogs  or  grain  for 
fowls,  and  for  a  variety  of  other  purposes  for  which  hot  air, 
hot  water,  or  steam  are  useful. 

For  farm  use,  especially  when  constant  steam  is  not  re- 
quired, Prindle's  steamer  is  much  better  than  an  engine- 
boiler,  as  it  works  only  at  a  very  low  pressure,  and  is  conse- 
quently quite  safe,  and  is  much  cheaper  when  we  consider 
the  cost  of  setting  up  the  larger  engine-boiler,  and  its  more 
expensive  transportation. 

Full  particulars  concerning  the  Prindle  steamer  may  be 
obtained  by  application  to  the  inventor. 

I  have  not  determined,  in  my  own  case,  what  power  to 
adopt  for  the  cutting  of  my  long  fodder.  The  question  is 
about  evenly  balanced  between  a  small  steam-engine,  a  wind- 
mill, and  a  railway  horse-power,  for  final  use ;  but  as  the  first 
cost  w^ill  be  less,  I  shall  commence  with  the  horse-power 


STEAMING  FOOD  FOR  STOCK  425 

belonging  to  a  threshing  machine,  and  a  Prindle  boiler, 
changing  to  one,  the  engine  or  mill,  at  a  futm-e  day,  if  it 
seems  desirable. 

It  is  hardly  prudent  to  make  any  positive  calculations  in 
advance  of  actual  experiment,  but  I  anticipate — and  I  base 
my  calculations  on  a  very  careful  survey  of  the  whole  field 
— a  saving  of  about /br^y  jper  cent,  in  the  cost  of  feeding 
my  stock,  over  the  present  system  of  feeding  only  the  best 
hay  uncut.  A  part  of  the  saving  will  be  due  to  the  more 
digestible  condition  of  the  food,  and  a  part  to  the  fact  that 
a  much  cheaper  quality  of  hay,  or  straw,  or  corn-stalks  can 
be  largely  used.  A  saving  of  very  much  less  than  this, 
when  from  thirty  to  forty  liead  are  to  be  provided  for,  will 
be  enough  to  make  a  fair  profit  on  the  business. 

The  various  uses  for  which  steam  can  be  adapted  seems 
to  be  but  little  understood  by  the  masses.  Fear  of  explo- 
sions, scalding,  &c.,  as  well  as  want  of  knowledge  of  its 
great  advantages,  has  thus  far  prevented  its  general  intro- 
duction. 

The  want  of  a  perfectly  safe  and  easily  managed  low 
pressure  apparatus  with  which  to  accomplish  all  the  require- 
ments of  domestic  use,  has  also  been  a  great  drawback. 
The  great  advantages  of  cooking,  heating,  boiling,  &c.,  by 
steam,  are  obvious  when  it  is  remembered  that  it  can  be 
done  with  much  less  water  and  fuel,  requiring  but  little  care 
of  the  operator,  and  using  wooden  vessels  (if  desired)  of  any' 
kind,  size,  or  shape  (a  great  desideratum).     By  its  use  there 


426  STEAMING    FOOD    FOR    STOCK. 

is  no  re-filling  of  hettles  (the  ordinary  mode)  to  get  a  desired 
quantity ;  no  constant  watching  or  stirring,  or  removal  of 
the  substance  while  hot,  to  prevent  burning  ;  no  cleaning  of 
kettles  for  every  separate  job,  which  can  be  done  by  steam. 
By  the  use  of  this  powerful  agent,  large  quantities  may  be 
boiled  or  steamed,  or  several  vessels  (if  need  be)  treated  at 
the  same  time ;  and  when  desirable,  the  steam  can  be  con- 
veyed in  pipes  or  logs  to  some  little  distance,  using  proper 
care  in  protecting  tlie  same  from  condensation  ;  thus  avoid- 
ing, many  times,  danger  from  fire,  and  accommodating  itself 
to  all  the  various  purposes  of  domestic  economy,  as  well  as 
in  the  manufacturing  of  many  articles  or  compounds,  when 
danger  from  burning  or  explosion  is  so  common.  By  steam 
the  clothes  may  be  boiled  at  any  point  in  the  barrel  or  tub  ; 
the  bath-tub  may  be  warmed  in  an  adjoining  room  ;  the  farm 
or  stock-feeder  could  easily  cook  in  quantities  at  a  time,  or 
scald  his  hogs,  steam  his  barrels,  &c.,  &c.  We  believe  that 
when  a  cheap,  simple,  and  perfectly  safe  apparatus  is  once 
introduced,  that  the  subject  (as  it  deserves)  will  receive 
much  more  attention,  as  by  steam  all  classes  might  as  easily 
be  benefited. 

ADVANTAGES  OF   COOKED   FOOD. 

The  American  Agriculturist  for  January,  1860,  says: 
"  Experiments  made  by  C.  M.  Clay,  of  Kentucky,  showed 
that  one  bushel  of  dry  corn  made  5  lbs.  10  oz.  of  pork ; 
of  boiled  corn,  14  lbs.  7  oz.,  and  boiled  meal,  16  to  18  lbs." 


STEAMING   FOOD   FOR    STOCK.  427 

MoHorCs  Cydopcedia  of  Agriculture  (than  whicli  there 
is  110  higher  authority  in  Europe)  says :  "  As  to  steaming 
food  for  cattle,  there  is  abundant  experience  to  recommend 
it.  The  process  of  cooking  renders  sohible  that  which  would 
otherwise  be  imperfectly  digested.  It  removes,  in  some 
cases,  what  would  otherwise  be  unwliolesome  ;  and  it  renders 
savory  what  would  otherwise  be  distasteful." 

Loudon'' s  Encydojpmiia  of  Agriculture  remarks :  "  Un- 
less food  be  thoroughly  deprived  of  its  vegetative  powers 
before  it  enters  the  stomach,  the  whole  nourishment  which 
it  is  capable  of  affording  cannot  be  derived  from  it.  The 
most  effectual  mode  of  destroying  the  living  principle  is  by 
the  application  of  lieat^  by  steaming  or  boiling." 

The  Society  of  Shakers,  at  Lebanon,  N.  Y.,  famous  for 
pork-raising,  say:  "For  fattening  animals,  swine  particu- 
larly, we  consider  three  of  cooked  equal  to  four  of  raw 
meal." 


GAEDENING  FOR  MARKET. 


AYhile  market-gardening',  as  a  systematic  business,  is 
quite  distinct  from  farming,  there  is  no  farmer  who  lives 
near  a  town  who  may  not  make  the  raising  of  certain  crops 
on  a  small  scale  very  profitable.  Success  in  this  branch  of 
the  business  of  the  farmer  requires  that  the  land  to  be  devo- 
ted to  its  prosecution  he  dry,  warmly  situated,  with  a  good 
exposure,  and  rich  and  again  rich. 

The  amount  of  manure  which  may  be  profitahly  applied 
to  land  intended  for  the  growth  of  market  vegetables  has 
hardly  any  limit.     One  hundred  cartloads  of  good  horse 


GARDKNIXG  FOR  MARKET.  429 

manure  to  an  acre,  evei^y  year^  will  pay  more  profit  than 
will  fifty  loads ;  and  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  even  two 
hundred  loads  would  pay  better  still. 

The  cultivation  of  vegetables  entails,  in  any  case,  a  heavy 
outlay  for  labor,  seed,  expenses  of  marketing,  &c.,  and  these 
are  about  the  same  (except  in  the  matter  of  marketing)  for 
a  light  as  for  a  heavy  crop — it  takes  a  certain  amount  of 
produce  to  pay  the  cost,  and  up  to  this  point  there  is  no 
profit.  Beyond  this  point,  except  the  cost  of  the  manure, 
it  is  nearly  all  profit,  and  the  more  we  can  stimulate  exces- 
sive production  the  more  rapidly  will  the  ratio  of  profits 
increase  over  the  expenses. 

No  farmer  can  hope  to  become  really  successful  in  raising 
vegetables  for  market  until  he  is  prepared  to  expend — in- 
cluding the  value  of  the  manure  used — at  least  $300  annu- 
ally on  every  acre  of  his  garden  land.  With  this  outlay, 
if  his  soil  is  good  and  well  placed,  and  his  market  is  a 
good  one,  and  if  he  is  the  right  m.anfor  the  business ,  he 
ought  to  make  a  clear  profit  of  $500  per  acre. 

The  character  of  the  market  should  be  well  understood. 
If  there  is  a  manufacturing  town  near  by,  or  any  town  hav- 
ing a  population  which  includes  a  large  proportion  of  labor- 
ing people,  the  case  is  a  simple  one. 

It  should  be  well  understood  that  it  does  not  pay  (at  least 
so  far  as  gardening  is  concerned)  to  feed  the  rich.  They 
are  like  the  black  sheep  of  the  flock,  that  don't  eat  so  much 
as  the  white  ones — there  are  not  so  many  of  them,  and,  as 


430  GARDENING    FOR    MARKET. 

another  reason,  tliej  do  not  eat  so  largely  of  coarse  vege- 
tables. A  hearty  Irish  laborer,  with  a  stout  hardworking 
wife  and  a  table  full  of  healthy  children,  will  use  up  cabba- 
ges and  turnips  in  a  way  to  delight  the  heart  of  a  gardener ; 
and  the  atmosphere  of  a  manufacturing  town  will  evapo- 
rate a  farmer's  load  of  these  vegetables  as  the  sun  dries  up 
the  morning  mists. 

To  any  one  who  is  disposed  to  venture  an  acre  or  two  in 
gardening,  no  better  service  can  be  done  than  to  recommend 
him  to  read  Peter  Henderson's  "  Gardening  for  Profit," 
wherein  are  laid  down  precise  rules  for  the  management  of 
every  department  of  the  business. 

We  have  here  only  space  to  give  a  few  practical  hints 
which  will  be  chiefly  of  use  to  fanners  who  propose  to  de- 
vote a  portion  of  their  time  to  the  simpler  kind  of  garden- 
ing. 

It  may  be  given  as  a  general  rule,  that  the  only  crops 
that  it  will  pay  i\\q  fanner  to  raise,  in  his  market  garden, 
are  beets,  cabbages  (early  and  late),  sweet  corn,  cucumbers, 
onions  (rare-ripes),  parsnips,  radishes,  spinach,  and  tomatoes. 

The  size,  arrangement,  and  equipment  of  the  garden. — 
We  will  suppose  a  farmer  to  be  about  to  embark  in  this  busi- 
ness, and  that  he  is  willing  to  invest  in  it  a  capital  of  one 
thousand  dollars.  Of  course  the  same  general  rules  will  apply 
for  a  more  or  less  extensive  operation.  He  should  select  two 
acres  of  light  dry  land  (if  he  has  it,  and  if  not  he  should 
-thoroughly  underdrain  it),  if  possible  with  an  exposure  to 


GARDENING    FOR    MARKET.  431 

the  east  or  south.     If  it  is  sheltered  from  the  north  and 
west  by  an  orchard  or  by  other  trees,  so  much  the  better. 

The  land  may  be  more  economically  arranged  if  it  lies  in 
about  a  square  body,  and  should  be  fenced  on  the  north  and 
west  sides  with  a  tight  board  fence  six  or  eight  feet  high. 
A  fence  of  the  latter  height,  made  in  the  best  manner,  of 
pine  boards,  capped  with  a  spruce  rail,  will  cost  in  the 
vicinity  of  New  York  about  $200  for  600  running  feet.  This 
fence  should  set  close  to  the  ground,  so  that  the  wind  cannot 
draw  under  it,  and  it  will  have  the  effect  of  very  materially 
modifying  the  climate,  and  enabling  the  growing  of  much 
earlier  vegetables. 

Close  in  the  northwest  corner  he  should  then  set  up  two 
parallel  rows  of  hemlock  boards,  nailed  to  2x3  stakes,  driv- 
en into  the  ground.  The  back  line  of  boarding  should  be 
12  inches  high,  parallel  to  the  fence  and  three  feet  distant 
from  it.  The  other  row  should  be  8  inches  high,  parallel  to 
and  6  feet  and  2  inches  distant  from  the  first,  outside  meas- 
urement. Both  to  be  187  feet  long,  with  boards  to  close  up 
the  ends,  and  the  ground  enclosed  by  them  should  be  spaded 
and  manured.  This  is  the  "  cold  frame,"  which  is  to  be 
covered  by  50  sashes,  each  3  feet  9  inches  wide  by  6  feet  2h 
inches  long,  having  four  rows  of  glass,  each  containing  nine 
8x10  lights  set  lengthwise  across  the  space — the  rails  being 
ten  inches  apart.  The  sashes  to  be  made  of  If  inch  stuff 
and  strengthened  by  a  flat  rod  of  iron  (1  inch  by  ^  inch) 
let  in  flush  on  the  under  side  and  screwed  fast  to  the  bars 


432  GARDENING  FOR  MARKET. 

and  rails,  across  the  middle  of  the  sash.  It  is  best  to 
make  the  sashes  in  the  best  manner,  as  they  are  a  very  im- 
portant part  of  the  permanent  stock  in  trade  of  the  garden. 
They  will  cost,  at  an  outside  price,  $250. 

The  ground  of  the  garden  should  be  deeply  ploughed  and 
subsoiled  in  July  or  August,  and  if  the  weeds  that  grow 
upon  it  are  likely  to  ripen  their  seeds,  they  should  be  mow- 
ed down  late  in  the  fall.  Before  winter  sets  in,  the  largest 
amount  of  horse  manure  that  can  be  bought  for  $200,  de- 
livered, should  be  spread  upon  the  surface,  and  left  exposed 
to  the  rain  and  melting  snow  of  the  winter. 

About  the  middle  of  September,  sow  in  a  well-prepared 
seed-bed  in  an  old  garden,  twelve  ounces  of  the  seed  of  Jer- 
sey Wakefield  cabbage,  and  four  ounces  of  Fottler's  Im- 
proved Brunswick.  At  about  the  same  time  sow  on  three 
feet  of  one  end  of  the  cold  frame,  one  ounce  of  black-seeded 
butter  lettuce,  and  one  ounce  of  early-curled  Simpson  lettuce, 
giving  to  each  about  nine  square  feet.  These  are  to  remain 
where  they  are  sown  during  the  winter.  The  cabbage  plants 
will  be  large  enough  to  transplant  about  six  weeks  from  the 
time  of  sowing,  when  they  are  to  be  "  pricked  out "  in  the 
cold  frame  two  inches  apart  each  way,  which  will  give  about 
800  plants  to  a  sash.  These  plants  should  be  well  watered, 
and  sprinkled  with  a  light  coating  of  air-slaked  lime. 

They  will  need  to  be  protected  by  the  glass  until  they  are 
firmly  rooted  (the  sashes  being  tilted  up  at  the  back  to  give 
them  air  whenever  the  sun  is  on  them),  and  on  frosty  nights, 


GAitDENLNG   FOK   MARKET.  433 

and  they  should  be  gradually  accustomed  to  the  cold  air,  so 
that  they  may  be  able  to  withstand  the  hard  freezing  that 
they  will  get  in  the  winter;  all  through  the  winter  they 
should  have  air  whenever  the  frost  is  thawed  from  the  under 
side  of  the  glass,  and  on  fine  days  the  sashes  should  be  strip- 
ped off  from  them  altogether.  The  end  where  the  lettuce 
plants  are  standing  should  have  less  air,  and  should  have 
the  protection  at  night  of  an  old  carpet  thrown  over  the 
sash.  Directly  in  front  of  the  cold  frame  there  should  be  a 
second  frame  made  of  exactly  the  same  size  and  character. 
This  should  be  filled  with  straw,  leaves,  or  other  rubbish 
which  will  keep  it  from  freezing,  and  about  the  last  of  Feb- 
ruary or  the  first  of  March  its  covering  should  be  removed 
and  about  three  inches  of  well-rotted  manure  should  be  dug 
into  it — not  too  deeply.  The  lettuce  plants  are  now  to  be 
transplanted  to  this  frame,  at  distances  of  six  and  a-half  or 
seven  inches  each  way  (about  seventy  plants  to  a  sash),  and 
covered  by  the  sashes  which  may  now  be  taken  entirely  from 
the  hardened  cabbage  plants.  If  light  board  shutters  have 
been  provided  to  cover  the  cabbages  during  severe  storms,  it 
will  be  better,  but  they  will  stand  any  amount  of  hardship 
after  their  winter's  training.  The  lettuce  plants  should  have 
plenty  of  air  during  fine  weather  (and  some  air  whenever 
it  is  not  freezing),  should  be  abundantly  watered  if  the 
season  is  dry,  and  should  be  forced  by  as  much  heat  as  can 
be  given  them  without  depriving  them  of  air.     They  will 

be  ready  for  market  about  the  middle  of  May,  when  lettuce 

19 


4:34:  GAUDENING    FOR   MARKET. 

usually  sells  in  towns  (not  in  the  larger  cities)  for  from  8c. 
to  12c.  per  head. 

During  the  latter  part  of  April,  plant  sixty  tlii*ee-inch 
pots  with  half  a  dozen  seeds  each  of  White  Spine  cucum- 
ber, and  set  them  in  a  warm  light  room  in  the  house.  By 
the  time  the  lettuce  is  sold  off  these  will  be  sturdy  plants, 
and  they  should  be  thinned  to  three  in  each  pot.  Isow  dig 
holes  a  foot  deep,  and  a  foot  in  diameter,  at  intervals 
of  three  feet  in  the  lettuce  frame,  and  fill  them  with  very 
thoroughly  rotted  and  rich  compost,  covering  it  with  a  little 
soil.  On  each  of  these  plant  the  contents  of  a  pot,  without 
disturbing  the  roots  of  the  plants,  and  cover  closely  with 
the  sashes.  Give  a  little  air  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  but 
cover  close  from  4  p.m.  until  10  a.m.,  and  during  all  chilly 
weather ;  water  copiously,  and  uncover  to  all  w^arm  rains. 

By  the  latter  part  of  June  the  picking  will  commence  (at 
from  5c.  to  30c.  each),  and  it  may  be  continued  as  long  as 
the  price  is  not  less  than  Ic.  each.  This  crop  is  more  un- 
certain and  varying  in  its  results  than  lettuce,  but  it  usually 
pays  well,  and  is  very  inexpensive. 

Now  let  us  sum  up  the  probable  income  of  50  sashes, 
managed  as  directed  above : — 

35,000  cabbage  plants,  at  $10 $350 

3,500  lettuces,  at  8c 280 

Cucumbers  (from  $25  to  $100),  say 50 

$680 
This  is  earned  with  a  srnall  investment,  and  the  labor  is 


GARDENING  FOE  MARKET.  435 

mainly  done  in  tlie  fall  and  winter,  when  other  work  is 
slack  :  and  it  has  the  great  advantage  of  coming  in  early, 
when  there  is  a  demand  for  ready  money  to  pay  for  labor, 
ifcc. 

Five  hundred  tomato  plants  maybe  started  in  the  kitchen 
window,  or  in  a  small  hot-bed,  and  by  the  middle  of  April 
they  may  be  pricked  out  in  one  end  of  the  lettuce  frame.  As 
early  in  May  as  the  danger  of  frosts  has  passed,  they  should 
be  set  out  at  intervals  of  fifteen  inches  along  the  foot  of  the 
fence  on  the  north  and  west  sides  of  the  field,  to  be  trained 
up  against  it  (tacked  fast),  and  kept  trimmed  to  single 
stems.  At  a  height  of  six  feet  they  should  be  pinched  off 
and  their  growth  kept  close.  They  should  be  planted  in  a 
very  rich  soil,  and  well  watered.  They  can  hardly  fail  to 
produce  early  crops,  and  ought  to  sell  for  $75  to  $100. 

Now  we  come  to  the  management  of  the  field  crops. 

If  we  could  only  raise  cabbages  year  after  year  on  the 
same  land,  our  business  would  be  a  very  simple  one.  We 
might  take  two  crops  yearly  (an  early  and  a  late  one)  of  the 
most  profitable  and  easily  raised  vegetable  on  our  list. 

But,  unfortunately,  one  crop  in  two  years  is  all  we  can 
reasonably  hope  for,  as  the  "  club-foot"  will  surely  attack  an 
immediately  succeeding  crop  on  the  same  ground,  and  our  best 
plan  is  to  arrange  to  grow  as  man}^  cabbages  as  we  safely 
can — making  this  point  our  constant  aim — and  to  occupy 
the  land  as  profitably  as  possible  the  rest  of  the  time. 

Therefore,  the  field  should  be  divided  into  two  equal  parts. 


436  GARDENING  FOR  MARKET. 

one  side  being  prepared  for  cabbages  and  the  other  for  such 
other  crops  as  will  not  interfere  with  the  growth  of  cab- 
bages the  next  year. 

The  first  operation  is  the  preparation  of  the  ground  for 
early  cabbages,  for  whic.li  we  devote  a  space  of  about  one 
acre. 

The  manure  which  was  spread  in  the  fall  should  be 
lightly  ploughed  in — not  deep  enough  to  turn  up  the  old  sod 
— and  a  thousand  pounds  of  Peruvian  guano,  two  thousand 
pounds  of  fish  guano,  or  fifteen  hundred  pounds  of  bone- 
dust,  should  be  evenly  sown  over  the  ground,  and  thoroughly 
harrowed  in.  Either  of  these  manures  will  cost  about  $40. 
As  early  as  it  is  possible  to  get  the  ground  into  proper  con- 
dition, as  described  above,  the  cabbage  plants  in  the  cold 
frame  should  be  set  out,  in  rows  two  feet  apart,  and  about 
16  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  It  will  probably  be  best  to 
plant  three-fourths  of  the  piece  with  the  Jersey  Wakefield, 
and  the  remainder  with  the  Brunswick,  which  will  begin  to 
be  fit  for  market  at  about  the  time  when  the  Wakefield  is 
all  sold. 

This  amount  of  land  will  receive  about  15,000  plants, 
leaving  about  20,000  plants  to  be  sold  from  the  frame.  If 
the  value  of  cold  frame  plants  is  understood  in  the  vicinity, 
they  will  be  readily  taken  up  at  $10  per  thousand. 

If  there  is  a  good  summer  market  for  lettuce,  the  Early 
Curled  Simpson  may  be  set  out  between  the  rows  of  cabbage, 
when  it  will  grow  to  a  marketable  size  before  the  whole 


GAKDENESTG   FOR   MARKET.  437 

ground  will  be  required  by  the  main  crop.  In  the  neigh- 
borhood of  small  towns  this  will  not  be  worth  while,  as 
there  is  but  little  demand  for  lettuce  after  June  1st. 

As  soon  as  the  cabbages  are  planted — and  this  may  be 
done  even  so  early  as  in  March,  if  the  weather  is  fine — the 
other  half  of  the  garden  should  be  manured  and  prepared 
in  the  same  manner,  and  planted  with  beets,  onions,  pars- 
nips, spinach,  and  radishes ;  the  first  four  in  about  equal 
proportions,  and  in  the  following  manner ; — 

Beets  (of  the  Bassano  and  the  early  turnip-rooted  blood 
variety)  should  be  very  thickly  planted  in  rows  18  inches 
apart — thickly,  because  the  early  frosts  «nay  cut  off  a  part 
of  the  crop — and  when  they  are  fairly  up,  they  should  be 
singled  out  to  intervals  of  about  4  inches  in  the  rows. 

The  onions  should  be  "  sets "  raised  the  previous  year. 
These  may  usually  be  bought  for  from  $6  to  $10  per  bushel, 
according  to  size — the  smallest  bearing  the  highest  price. 
They  should  be  set  in  rows  9  inches  apart,  and  at  intervals 
of  3  inches  in  the  rows,  being  firmly  pressed  down  in  the 
bottom  of  the  line  made  by  the  marker.  Every  seventh 
row  should  be  omitted  to  leave  room  to  walk  among  the 
crop,  and  the  sets  should  be  entirely  covered  by  raking  the 
beds  evenly  over. 

Onions  raised  from  the  seed  are  rather  a  farm  than  a  gar- 
den crop,  and  will  not  pay  to  raise  on  land  so  expensively 
manured  as  that  under  consideration. 

Onions  raised  from  "  sets  "  are  called  Bare  Eijpes^  and 


438  GARDENma   FOR   MARKET. 

they  always  meet  a  ready  sale  in  any  market  where  there  is 
a  market  for  any  vegetables.  Still,  as  it  is  considerable 
work  to  tie  them,  it  w^ill  be  best  not  to  raise  more  than  one- 
quarter  of  an  acre  of  them. 

Parsnips  should  be  planted  early  in  May  on  well  pre- 
pared (deeply  loosened)  ground,  in  rows  27  inches  apart,  the 
seed  being  strewn  thickly  in  the  rows,  and  the  plants  finally 
thinned  to  intervals  of  six  inches.  The  reason  for  putting 
the  row^s  so  wide  asunder  is  that  it  enables  us  to  cultivate 
the  crop  with  the  horse-hoe  at  a  time  when  labor  can  be  ill 
spared  for  hand-hoeing. 

Spinach. — This  crop,  the  first  year,  must  be  planted  in 
the  spring ;  by  planting  very  early,  on  ground  so  heavily 
manured,  it  will  be  in  market  ahead  of  green  peas,  and  will 
bring  a  good  price,  but  after  these  are  plenty  it  can 
hardly  be  sold  at  any  price.  The  cultivation  of  this  crop 
is  extremely  simple.  The  seeds  are  sown  pretty  thickly 
(say  10  lbs.  per  acre)  in  rows  about  12  or  14  inches  apart, 
and  the  land  kept  clean  until  it  is  large  enough  to  cut. 

For  all  subsequent  years,  spinach  should  be  planted  about 
September  15th,  on  the  ground  from  which  the  Brunswick 
cabbage  has  been  taken,  this  being  first  well  manured  with 
animal  manure.  It  will  require  (above  the  latitude  of  New 
York)  a  light  covering  of  seaweed,  leaves,  or  straw  during 
winter.  Coming  very  early  into  market,  it  often  brings 
four  dollars  a  barrel. 

Radishes  are  a  stolen  crop,  and,  to  a  limited  extent,  they 


GARDENING    FOR    MARKET.  439 

may  be  very  profitably  grown.  It  is  best  to  raise  both  the 
long  scarlet  and  the  short  top  turnip-rooted  varieties — the 
former  for  common  trade,  and  the  latter  for  those  who  are 
more  choice  in  their  taste,  the  proportion  of  each  being 
regulated  according  to  the  character  of  the  market. 

The  seed  may  be  sown,  rather  thinly,  with  a  seed  drill 
between  the  rows  of  beets.  No  cultivation  is  needed.  The 
seed  is  the  only  cost  except  the  preparation  for  market,  and 
this  need  be  applied  only  to  so  much  as  there  is  a  sale  for ; 
the  rest  can  be  simply  cut  out  with  a  push  hoe,  before  the 
beets  will  require  the  whole  ground. 

We  have  now  provided  for  the  planting  of  all  the  land, 
and  will  need  to  commence  promptly  to  use  the  hoes,  of 
which  at  least  two  should  be  kept  going  incessantly  until 
the  crops  are  all  firmly  established,  and  are  able  to  hold  their 
own  against  weeds.  In  fact,  at  no  time  during  the  growth 
of  the  crops,  until  they  are  too  large  to  be  worked  among 
without  injury,  should  weeds  be  allowed  to  grow  at  all.  If 
they  once  get  started  so  that  there  must  be  a  fight  to  get  rid 
of  them,  we  may  as  well  say  good-bye  to  all  hope  of  profit, 
for  they  will  require  more  labor  than  it  will  be  pleasant  to 
pay  for,  and  the  crops  will  be  materially  injured  by  them. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  every  foot  of  the  land  be  lightly  hoed 
over  (or  even  raked  with  a  light  iron  rake  until  it  becomes 
too  hard)  once  a  week,  there  will  be  no  weeds  to  kill,  and 
the  plants  themselves  will  be  sufiiciently  benefited  by  the 
operation  to  pay  the  cost. 


440  GARDENING  FOR  MARKET. 

Harvesting  the  crops  ^  and  preparing  them  for  market. 

The  first  sales  will  be  of  radishes  and  spinach.  Long 
radishes  are  pulled,  and  tied  in  bunches,  and  then  thrown 
into  water.  In  a  few  minutes  they  are  taken  out  by  the 
tops,  laid  against  a  board  which  stands  sloping  into  the 
water,  and  there  washed  clean  with  a  wisp-broom. 

The  round  radishes  grow  at  the  top  of  the  ground,  and  so 
little  dirt  adheres  to  them  that  they  only  require  to  be 
soaked  for  a  few  minutes  and  then  shaken  in  the  water. 

Spinach  is  simply  cut  off  at  the  top  of  the  root  and  packed 
(dry)  in  barrels — 40  lbs.  being  a  barrel.  It  is  the  easiest  of 
all  the  crops,  except  cabbages,  to  prepare  for  market. 

Parsnips  are,  as  every  farmer  knows,  either  left  in  the 
ground  until  spring,  or  taken  up  in  the  fall  and  stored  like 
any  other  roots. 

Beets  are  pulled  when  about  half  grown;  the  outside 
leaves  torn  off  so  as  to  leave  only  enough  to  hold  them 
by  securely,  the  roots  washed  clean,  and  tied  in  bunches  of 
four  or  five,  according  to  the  varying  custom  of  different 
markets. 

Onions  (rare-ripes)  are  pulled  when  the  bulb  has  a  diameter 
of  three-quarters  of  an  inch  or  thereabouts — the  larger  the 
better — and,  after  the  removal  of  the  dead  skin,  are  tied  in 
bunches  of  ^yq  or  ten.  For  the  New  York  market,  they 
must  be  washed.  For  Eastern  markets  this  is  not  necessary. 
It  is  quite  an  addition  to  the  cost  of  preparation. 

Cabbages  (the  early  sorts)  are  simply  cut  off  near  the 


GAEDENING   FOE   MARKET.  441 

ground,  with  nearly  all  tlieir  leaves,  and,  if  they  are  to  be 
shipped,  are  packed  in  barrels  or  crockery-crates.  They 
will  stand  a  good  deal  of  rough  treatment. 

Prices  of  Early  Vegetables. — On  this  subject  but  little 
can  be  said  that  will  be  a  criterion  for  different  localities,  ex- 
cept that  in  nearly  all  of  the  smaller  towns  they  sell  for  from 
50  to  100  per  cent,  above  the  New  York  quotations.  The 
cause  of  this  anomalous  condition  is  that  these  towns  are 
nearly  always  supplied  with  early  vegetables  from  the  larger 
cities. 

Probably  the  following  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  average  of 
prices  in  towns  of  from  10,000  to  50,000  inhabitants,  during 
a  series  of  years : — 

Cabbages,  8  cents  each. 

Onions  (rare-ripes),  50  cents  per  dozen  finches  of  five 
each. 

Beets,  75  cents  per  dozen  bunches  of  five  each. 

Radishes,  30  cents  per  dozen  bunches  of  about  ten  each. 

Spinach,  $1.50  per  barrel. 

Second  Crops.— Wq  have  now  cleared  all  of  the  land  ex- 
cept that  which  is  occupied  by  the  parsnips.  This  produces 
but  one  crop  during  the  season,  and  we  have  not  very  much 
more  to  expect  from  the  use  of  the  land.  Our  profit  must 
have  come  mainly  from  the  early  crops.  Still,  enough  may 
be  expected  to  make  a  fair  return  for  the  labor  of  cultivation, 
and  for  the  use  of  the  land  and  manure,  and  the  land  needs 

to  be  cultivated  for  its  own  sake.     The  gardeners  about  the 

19* 


44:2  GARDENING    FOR   MARKET. 

large  cities,  having  a  market  for  everything  green  that 
they  can  raise  during  the  whole  year,  and  for  some  crops, 
such  as  celery  and  salsify,  which  meet  with  no  sale  in  small 
places,  find  their  second  crops  very  profitable ;  but,  in  our 
case,  the  chances  are  that  we  must  be  content  with  small 
returns  from  this  source. 

We  are  debarred  from  raising  rutabagas,  or  French  tur- 
nips, and  late  cabbages,  for  the  reason  that  these  cannot 
follow  our  crop  of  cabbages,  and  if  they  were  made  to  fol- 
low any  of  the  other  crops  they  would  injure  the  land  for 
the  growth  of  early  cabbages  the  next  year. 

Celery  is  a  good  crop  for  land  that  is  in  good  condition, 
but  it  is  hardly  worth  raising  for  small  markets. 

Horseradish^  sweet  herhs,  mangel  wurzel,  sweet  corn^  and 
common  turnips  are  about  the  only  safe  reliance.  Of 
these,  the  first  is  the  most  profitable,  as  it  finds  a  ready  sale 
among  the  pickle-makers  in  cities.  Concerning  its  cultiva- 
tion, the  following  is  copied  from  an  article  furnished  by 
Peter  Henderson  for  the  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Depart- 
ment for  1865  : — 

"  The  culture  is  very  simple,  and  so  far  very  profitable. 
The  plants  or  sets  used  are  the  pieces  broken  off  from  the 
main  root  in  its  preparation  for  market.  These  are  cut  into 
lengths  of  about  six  inches,  and  are  from  one-quarter  to  one- 
half  inch  m  diameter.  They  are  planted  letween  the  rows 
of  cabbage  or  cauliflower  as  soon  as  these  crops  are  planted 
in  th^  -Spring,  and  about  the  same  distance  apart  between 


GARDENING    FOR   MARKET.  443 

the  plants.  The  set  or  root  is  planted  perpendicularly,  three 
inches  under  the  surface.  There  is  no  danger  in  planting 
the  sets  thus  deep,  for  horseradish  is  particularly  tenacious 
of  life,  and  will  start  and  push  through  the  soil  even  if 
planted  much  deeper.  The  motive  in  planting  it  under  the 
surface  is  to  delay  its  starting,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with 
the  cabbage  crop,  which  may  close  over  it  without  any 
injury  whatever  to  the  horseradish.  It  sometimes  happens, 
however,  either  from  planting  too  near  the  surface,  or  by 
the  sets  being  very  strong,  that  the  horseradish  grows  so 
strongly  as  to  interfere  seriously  with  the  cabbage  crop. 
In  such  cases  it  must  be  cut  off  by  the  hoe,  and  this  will 
not  injure  it  in  the  slightest  degree.  We  have  often  had  to 
hoe  it  off  twice  before  the  cabbage  crop  was  ready.  It  will 
be  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  the  root  only  of  this  crop  that  is 
wanted,  and  that,  being  grown  mostly  in  the  late  summer 
and  fall  months,  the  removal  of  the  leaves  in  June,  or  July 
even,  does  not  in  any  way  affect  the  crop. 

"  As  soon  as  the  cabbages  have  been  cut  off  the  stumps  are 
dug  up,  and  the  ground  deeply  hoed,  so  as  to  encourage  the 
growth  of  the  horseradish  crop.  This  rarely  requires  to  be 
done  more  than  once,  the  rapid  growth  of  the  leaves  smother- 
ing all  weeds.  It  attains  its  full  growth  of  root  by  the  end 
of  October,  when  it  may  be  dug  up  ;  but,  being  an  entirely 
hardy  plant,  we  usually  defer  lifting  it  until  all  our  more 
tender  vegetables  are  secured,  so  that  the  time  of  digging  it 
up  is  usually  in  November  and  December.     It  is  then  placed 


444  GARDENING  FOR  MARKET. 

in  pits  adjacent  to  the  vegetable  house,  so  that  it  cau  be  got 
at  conveniently,  and  trimmed  during  leisure  time  in  winter. 
Its  preparation  for  market  is  very  simple,  being  merely 
trimming  off  the  small  roots  (which  are  kept  for  next  season's 
planting),  washing,  by  rinsing  them  around  in  a  large  tub  ; 
weighing — for  it  is  all  sold  by  weight — and  packing  in  bar- 
rels. 

"  The  average  weight  per  acre  is  four  tons,  and  for  the  past 
five  years  it  has  sold  for  $200  per  ton,  or  $800  per  acre. 
During  March  of  last  year  it  sold  as  high  as  $250  per  ton. 
I  have  always  considered  it  the  most  safe  and  profitable 
crop  of  our  gardens." 

Whether  these  results  could  be  obtained  if  the  production 
of  horseradish  were  largely  increased,  it  is  impossible  to 
say  ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  its  cultivation  will  remain 
fairly  remunerative. 

Sweet  herbs  are  a  safe  crop  to  raise,  even  at  a  distance 
from  market,  as  they  can  be  dried  and  stowed  away  in  a  loft 
until  the  leisure  time  of  winter  allows  them  to  be  bunched 
and  packed  for  shipment.  Henderson  estimates  the  average 
yield  per  acre  at  $500. 

The  varieties  usually  grown  for  commercial  purposes  are 
thyme,  sage,  summer  savory,  and  sweet  marjoram.  The 
cultivation  of  all  of  these  is  precisely  the  same. 

The  plants  are  raised  from  seed  sown  in  April  in  a  very 
fine  and  rich  seed-bed,  and  they  are  planted  out  in  the  field, 
at  any  time  after  they  are  large  enough  up  to  the  last  of  July, 


GARDEXIXG  FOR  MARKET. 


445 


in  rows  about  12  inches  apart,  and  at  somewhat  less  than 
this  distance  in  the  row.  They  should  be  kept  free  from 
weeds  until  they  cover  the  ground.  At  this  stage  each 
alternate  row  should  be  cut  out,  after  which  the  crop  will 
spread  and  occupy  the  whole  ground  again,  and  in  very 
favorable  seasons  it  will  sometimes  close  up  after  alternate 
rows  have  been  taken  out  a  second  time. 

Mangel-wurzel  (or  field  beet)  is  a  safe  crop  for  the  far- 
mer to  raise,  inasmuch  as  it  is  the  best  of  allfthe  roots  for 
cattle  food ;  and,  in  rich  ground,  it  produces  enormously, 
while  it  does  not  interfere  with  the  growth  of  cabbages  the 
following  year. 

For  a  second  crop  the  plants  should  be  raised  from  seed 
planted  very  early  in  May,  and  it  should  be  set  out  at  dis- 
tances of  30  inches  by  15  inches.  It  is  a  perfectly  safe  and 
easy  crop  to  transplant,  if  care  be  only  taken  not  to  attempt 
the  operation  until  the  roots  are  at  least  as  thick  as  the  little 
finger. 

The  distances  recommended  as  the  best  ones  at  which  to 
set  the  plants  are  larger  than  are  usual  in  this  country,  but 
on  land  so  rich  as  that  under  consideration,  the  leaves  will 
cover  the  whole  space,  and  the  roots  will  grow  to  an  enor- 
mous size,  giving  a  larger  yield  than  if  more  thickly  set  out. 

Sweet  corn  is  a  fair  crop  to  raise  for  market,  but  its  cul- 
tivation is  so  well  understood  by  all  that  it  is  only  necessary 
to  say  here  that  it  should  follow  the  spinach  and  the  onions, 
which  are  the  first  out  of  the  ground  in  June. 


446  GABDENING  FOR  MARKET. 

Common  turnips  are  the  poorest  paying  of  all  the  arti- 
cles recommended  for  a  second  crop,  but  they  are  also 
raised  with  very  little  trouble,  and  as  the  seed  may  be  sown 
at  any  time  in  July,  they  are  often  available  to  follow  the 
last  removed  of  the  first  crops,  except  the  Brunswick  cab- 
bages, and  these  will  not  usually  be  cleared  off  in  time  to 
prepare  the  ground  for  anything  but  spinach  for  the  follow- 
ing spring. 

Profits. — This  is  hardly  a  safe  subject  for  estimate;  so 
much  depends  on  the  land,  the  situation,  the  man,  and  the 
market,  that  one  will  gain  where  another  would  lose,  and  the 
ratio  of  profits  will  vary  from  zero  to  an  almost  fabulous 
amount.  However,  under  any  favorable  circumstances,  a 
man  tolerably  well  qualified  for  the  business,  provided  lie 
will  use  manure  with  what  he  may  thinh  a  wasteful  ha/nd^ 
might  expect  about  the  results  of  the  following  table,  for 
an  average  of  ten  years.* 
Expenses  :— 

Rent  and  taxes,  say $30 

Interest  on  cost  of  improvements  and  tools, 

say  on  $800,  at  7  per  cent , 56 

Wear  and  tear 100 

Manure  (2  acres) 160 

Labor  (equal  to  two  men  for  the  whole  year)  1000 
Seeds  and  plants 50 

Total $1,396 

*  The  first  year,  the  outlay  for  manure  will  be  more,  and,  owing  to  the 
crude  condition  of  the  soil,  the  returns  will  be  less. 


GARDENING   FOK  MAEKET. 

Eeceipts : — 

From  use  of  50  sashes,  as  per  previous 
estimate 

447 

$680  00 

112  50 
800  00 
500  00 
225  00 
250  00 
100  00 
150  00 

100  00 

100  00 

25  00 

100  00 
25  00 

From   450  tomato  vines  on  the  fences 

(say  25c.  each) 

1  acre  10  000  cabbages  at  8c 

3  tons  horseradish  (2d  crop) 

J  acre  beets,  300  dozen  bunches  at  75c. 
^     "     onions,  500  dozen  bunches  at  50c. 

J     "     spinach,  50  barrels,  at  $2 

^     "     parsnips,  200  bushels  at  75c 

Eadishes   from   among   beets   and  cab- 
ba^fes.  sav 

1  Qf>rp  «;"wppt  hprbs  ^2d  oroD^    

J     "     sweet  corn  (2d  crop) 

J-     '*    mangel-wurzel,   say  250  bushels 

at40c 

4-     *'     com.moii  tumiDS 

Total 

Deduct  expenses 

Net  profits 

Of  course  there  are  chances  that  the  profits 
less  than  the  above  amount,  but  there   are 
chances  that  they  will  greatly  exceed  it. 

12,487  50 
1,396  00 

11,091  50 

5  will  be  much 
at  least  equal 

STEAM  CULTIYATIOK 

For  many  years  it  has  been  a  dream  of  American  inven- 
tors to  devise '  some  means  by  which  a  locomotive  steam- 
engine  could  be  made  to  take  the  place  of  the  team  in 
ploughing. 

Thus  far,  although  some  of  the  devices  have  been  made 
to  work  tolerably  well,  none  of  them  have  achieved  such  suc- 
cess as  to  commend  them  to  general  use. 

It  has  fallen  to  the  lot  of  England  to  make  the  first  appli- 
cation of  steam  to  ploughing  that  has  been  so  decidedly 
successful  as  to  come  into  very  general  use.  They  have 
abandoned  the  idea  of  making  the  steam-engine  travel  at 
the  front  of  the  plough,  and  place  it  on  one  of  the  headlands, 
broadside  to  its  work,  an  "  anchor "  standing  opposite  to 
it  on  the  other  side  of  the  field. 

Under  the  engine  there  is  a  horizontal  windlass,  five  feet 
in  diameter,  and  a  similar  windlass  is  attached  to  the  anchor. 
A  steel  wire  rope  passes  around  these  two  windlasses,  its 
ends  being  fastened  to  the  carriage  to  which  the  ploughs  are 
suspended,  and  which  forms  a  link  in  the  endless  chain. 

The  windlass  under  the  engine  is  so  arranged  that  it 
clasps  the  rope  firmly  on  those  parts  where  its  pulling  force 
is  exerted,  and  lets  go  as  the  rope  leaves  it  in  its  movement 
toward  the  anchor. 


llhli!Vf|,I|W^^^^^^^^ 


Ilii 


3! 


im» 


IIP,  ii'i 


STEAM   CULTIVATION.  451 

The  ploughs  are  set  in  ''  gangs  "  on  a  tilting  frame.  One 
end  of  the  frame  carries  right  hand,  and  the  other  end  left 
hand  ploughs.  The  ploughman  sits  on  the  end  of  the  frame 
which  is  "  in  work,"  and  guides  the  carriage  by  means  of  a 
steering  wheel.  His  weight  holds  the  end  on  which  he  sits 
down  to  its  work,  and  tilts  the  other  end  up,  so  that  its 
ploughs  are  in  the  air.  If  the  width  of  the  field  is  consider- 
able, "  rope  porters  "  or  guiding  wheels  keep  the  rope  from 
running  on  the  ground,  and  thus  save  power  and  prevent 
wear  and  tear. 

The  ploughs  being  ready  to  commence  their  work  at  the 
side  of  the  field  next  to  the  engine,  this  is  set  in  motion 
and  the  ploughs  are  drawn  toward  the  anchor ;  when  they 
arrive  at  the  anchor  side  of  the  field,  the  ploughman  changes 
his  seat  to  the  other  end  of  the  frame,  and  the  engine  is  re- 
versed, drawing  the  ploughs  toward  it ;  and  in  this  manner 
they  are  moved  back  and  forth  until  the  whole  length  of  the 
field  is  ploughed.  They  are  then  moved  to  the  ends  of  the 
headlands  and  these  are  ploughed. 

The  engine  is  a  locomotive,  and  advances  along  the  head- 
land so  as  to  be  always  opposite  its  work,  and  the  anchor  is 
moved  at  the  pleasure  of  the  operator,  by  the  action  of  its 
windlass. 

The  ploughs  are  used  in  all  cases  where  there  is  a  sod  or 
a  long  stubble  to  be  turned  under,  but  fallow  land  is  culti- 
vated by  the  substitution  of  long-toothed  grubbers,  which 
work  at  a  greater  depth. 


452  STEAM   CULTIVATION. 

The  construction  of  the  steam  ploughing  apparatus,  and 
its  mode  of  operation,  are  sliown  in  the  illustrations  which 
accompany  this  article. 

Among  the  advantages  claimed  for  it  are  the  following : — 

1.  Greater  rapidity  of  work,  allowing  land  to  be  speedily 
prepared  for  the  crop  while  in  the  proper  condition,  thus 
greatly  lessening  the  danger  that  planting  will  be  delayed 
by  rains. 

2.  Cheapness  of  work — the  cost  (in  England)  being  re- 
duced from  about  $5  per  acre,  the  cost  with  horses,  to 
about  $1.25,  the  cost  with  the  steam  apparatus. 

3.  Improved  condition  of  the  land. 

4.  Better  drainage. 

5.  Greater  activity  in  the  performance  of  all  the  work  of 
the  farm. 

Concerning  rapidity  of  work,  it  may  be  stated  that  a 
14-horse  engine  set  will  plough  from  9  to  12  acres  per  day, 
and  do  the  work  better  (deeper)  than  it  can  possibly  be  done 
with  any  ordinary  farm  team. 

At  the  Annual  Show  of  the  Eoyal  Agricultural  Society  at 
Bury  St.  Edmonds,  in  1867,  Fowler's  cultivator  smashed 
up  light  stubble-land  at  the  rate  of  50  acres  per  day  of 
10  hours,  and  did  the  work  at  a  cost  of  about  25c.  per  acre, 
including  all  charges  for  fuel,  wear  and  tear,  and  attendance. 

Anything  which  places  it  in  the  power  of  the  farmer  to 
prepare  his  land  for  planting  at  so  rapid  a  rate  as  even  8 


STEAM    CULTIVATION".  453 

acres  per  day,  must  do  much  to  free  him  from  the  annoyance 
of  frequent  delays  from  wet  weather  at  a  time  when  it  is  im- 
portant that  everything  proceed  rapidly. 

The  comparative  cost  of  cultivation,  when  done  by  steam 
instead  of  horses,  is,  of  course,  dependent  on  circumstances. 
On  small  farms,  and  for  use  in  small  fields  of  irregular  shape, 
the  cost  of  maintaining  an  expensive  set  of  machinery,  and 
the  time  lost  in  moving  from  one  field  to  another,  would 
more  than  make  up  for  any  saving  in  tlie  actual  cost  of  the 
work.  On  farms  having  250  acres  of  land  under  the  plough, 
and  having  few  fields  of  less  than  10  acres,  the  saving  in 
cost  of  work  would  be  very  great. 

This  saving  of  cost,  however,  is  of  minor  consequence  as 
compared  mth  the  other  advantages  of  steam  cultivation. 

The  improved  condition  of  the  land,  including  its  better 
drainage,  is  the  great  argument  in  favor  of  the  process. 

The  movement  of  the  ploughs  is  nearly  twice  as  rapid  as 
that  of  the  horse-plough,  and  the  furrow,  instead  of  simply 
being  turned  over,  is  thrown  from  the  mould-board  so  rapidly 
that  it  is  much  more  thoroughly  pulverized.  As  the  furrows 
are  all  laid  in  one  direction,  there  are  no  dead  furrows  left 
when  the  work  is  done.  In  the  ordinary  ploughing  of  an  acre 
of  land  it  receives  350,000  foot-marks  per  acre,  one-half  of 
these  being  upon  the  earth  at  the  bottom  of  the  furrows, 
which  in  time  becomes  compacted  to  an  almost  water-tight 
condition.  In  steam  ploughing,  the  land  is  not  touched  by 
a  hoof,  and  when  (as  is  often  the  case)  all  the  operations  of 


454  STEAM    CULTIVATION. 

harrowing,  rolling,  and  seed-drilling  are  done  by  steam,  it  is 
left  in  a  condition  most  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the  crop, 
and  to  the  rapid  subsidence  of  water  of  rains — assuming 
that  the  land  is  either  naturally  or  artificially  under-drained. 

Not  the  least  benefit  of  steam  cultivation  (accompanied 
by  the  use  of  the  steam-engine  for  threshing,  grinding,  fod- 
der-cutting, &c.)  is  found  in  the  greater  activity  which  is  im- 
parted to  all  the  business  of  the  farm.  The  same  dift'erence, 
but  in  less  marked  degree,  is  to  be  observed  in  the  use  of 
horses  instead  of  oxen. 

The  motive  power  sets  the  time  of  the  whole  establish- 
ment, and  as  the  use  of  oxen  leads  to  a  slow,  drawling,  list- 
less habit,  so  steam  gives  an  activity  and  bustle  to  every- 
thing which  makes  wages  and  board  tell  with  better  efiect 
on  the  year's  performances. 

In  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  for  1867, 
there  is  a  very  elaborate  report  of  the  results  of  the  exami- 
nations of  the  committees  which  had  been  appointed  "  to 
inquire  into  the  results  of  steam  cultivation  in  use  by  135 
farmers  and  stock  companies  in  England." 

The  following  are  some  of  the  conclusions  at  which  they 
arrived : — 

"  In  nearly  all  the  cases  reported  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
expenses  of  cultivation  are  very  much  reduced,  and  yet  that 
a  larger  amount  of  produce  is  said  to  have  been  realized. 

"Not  only  are  the  operations  themselves  better  done, 
quicker  done,  less  expensively  done,  but  all  kindred  and  col- 


STEAM   CULTIVATION.  455 

lateral  movements  have  had  imparted  to  them  a  speed  and 
'  whirr '  characteristic  of  steam  ;  men  acquire  the  habit  of 
doing  the  day's  work  in  the  day,  and  of  not  leaving  it  for 
the  morrow.  The  day's  labor,  too,  on  a  steam  farm  repre- 
sents more  work  with  less  distress  to  the  physical  frame  of 
the  laborer,  and  better  remuneration.  Steam  is  working  a 
revolution — slightly  manifested  as  yet,  so  that  we  can  only 
speak  of  tendencies  in  farm  practice,  and  in  the  character  of 
the  rural  population.  They  are  being  trained  for  the  era  of 
machinery  in  agriculture. 

"  In  most  cases  an  increase  of  produce,  in  some  instances 
as  much  as  8  bushels  per  acre  (of  wheat),  has  resulted  from 
steam  cultivation. 

"  We  may  state  as  our  general  conclusion  that  steam 
tackle,  w^hether  of  Fowler,  Howard,  Smith,  or  other  makers, 
is  now  so  far  perfected  and  settled  in  form  and  details,  that 
it  may  be  classed  among  old-established,  standard  farm 
machinery,  and  no  longer  among  the  novelties  of  the  day. 

"  We  find,  as  the  result  of  experience,  that  which  we 
already  anticipated  theoretically,  viz.,  that  the  increased 
depth  of  surface  and  the  absence  of  pressure  greatly  increase 
the  absorbing  powers  of  the  soil,  and  consequently  assist  the 
action  of  the  drains. 

"  Mr.  Wm.  Smith,  of  Woolston,  England,  was  one  of  the 
pioneers  of  steam  cultivation,  and  is  still  one  of  its  most 
zealous  advocates.  A  short  time  ago  he  extended  an  invi- 
tation to  all  who  were  interested  in  the  subject  to  visit  his 


456  STEAM   CULTIVATION. 

farm  and  witness  the  operation  of  his  tackle,  and  to  see  its 
effect.  He  communicates  to  a  London  paper  the  substance 
of  the  statements  he  made  to  his  visitors,  and  from  this  I 
extract  the  foUowiug,  as  serving  to  illustrate  the  complete- 
ness with  which  the  system  has  been  tried  and  found  satis 
factory : — 

"  You  must  see  that  these  fields  are  not  only  heavy  ciay, 
but  hilly  and  uneven,  and  the  face  of  them  shows  that  they 
are  well  drained  as  well  as  well  cultivated. 

"  This  field.  No.  3,  on  which  you  stand,  together  with 
No.  2,  through  which  you  have  passed,  and  No.  1  (light 
land),  which  I  will  hereafter  show  you,  contain  32  acres, 
and  were  smashed  by  steam-power  on  the  31st  of  August, 
and  the  1st,  2d,  and  3d  of  September,  at  the  following 
cost : — 

Labor £3  14  0 

Coal 1  12  0 

Oil 2  6 

Interest  on  money,  and  wear  and  tear 2     9  6 

£7  18  00 
Or  4:S.  9d.  per  acre  (about  $1.15). 

"  Now  I  will  let  you  know  what  the  operations  and  cost 
of  seed-beds  have  been  on  these  four  fields  under  steam 
culture  for  14  years,  taking  those  on  field  No.  3  to  repre- 
sent the  lot : — 

"  10  steam-power  smashings,  2  ridgings  and  subsoilings 


STEAM  CULTIVATION.  457 

by  steam-power,  2  cultivatiiigs  and  drillings  at  one  operation, 
each  by  steam-power ;  1  cross  cultivating  by  steam-power, 
1  cross  cultivating  and  seeding  at  one  operation  by  steam- 
power,  7  horse  cultivatings,  1  horse  subsoiling,  1  ridge 
ploughing  by  horses.  The  total  cost  of  these  operations  has 
been  £6.11.9,  or  9^.  5d.  per  acre  as  the  average  cost  of  a  seed- 
bed, exclusive  of  planting  or  drilling,  except  those  planted 
by  steam-power. 

"  The  cropping  on  No.  3  during  that  period  has  been  1 
of  peas,  2  of  barley,  5  of  beans,  5  of  wheat,  and  1  of  Swedes. 

"The  average  yearly  produce  under  steam  culture  has 
been,  on  these  four  fields,  quite  14  bushels  per  acre  more 
than  it  had  been  under  horse  culture. 

"  Now  let  us  look  into  the  working  of  the  tackle  since  the 
5th  of  October  last.  (3n  that  day  I  started  it  on  No.  4 
(heavy  land),  10  acres,  ridging  and  subsoiling  it  for  beans. 
It  was  finished  on  the  6th  at  4.10  p.m.  The  depth  of  work 
is  9  inches ;  the  consumption  of  coal  1  ton ;  and  the  pres- 
sure on  the  engine  60  lbs. 

"  We  then  shifted  the  tackle  nearly  half  a  mile  to  No.  1 
(heavy  land),  8  acres,  and  we  finished  that  field  at  12.15 
P.M.  on  the  8th.  Depth  of  work  10  inches ;  consumption  of 
coal  16  cwt. ;  pressure  on  the  engine  65  lbs. 

"  We  then  shifted  the  tackle  a  quarter  of  a  mile  to  No.  3 

(light  land,  part  1),  5  acres,  and  finished  it  on  the  9th  at 

12.20  P.M.     Depth  of  work  10  inches ;  consumption  of  coal 

9  cwt. ;  pressure  on  engine  60  lbs. 

20 


458  STEAM   CULTIVATION. 

'*  We  tlieii  shifted  the  tackle  a  mile  to  No.  6  (hght  land) 
14  acres,  working  all  day  on  the  10th  (the  11th  was  Siin- 
daj),  working  again  all  day  on  the  12th,  and  we  finished  on 
;:he  13th  at  8.40  a.m.     Depth  of  work  11  inches  ;   consump- 
tion of  coal  29  cwt. ;  pressure  on  engine  65  lbs. 

"  We  then  shifted  the  tackle  more  than  a  mile  to  No.  3 
(light  land,  part  2),  6  acres,  and  finished  it  on  the  14th  at 
11.50  A.M.  Depth  of  work  10  inches;  consumption  of 
coal  10  cwt. ;  pressure  on  engine  60  lbs. 

"  Wg  then  shifted  the  tackle  to  where  it  now  stands,  on 
No.  4  (light  land),  for  you  to  see  it  at  work. 

*  -X-  -Sf  *  ->&  vv  *  *  *  *  * 

"  It  is  not  a  set  of  new-fangled  tackle,  got  up  for  the  pur- 
pose of  racing,  for  the  common  portable  engine  has  done 
10  years'  hard  work.  It  has  done,  in  addition  to  my  plough- 
ing, a  lot  of  threshing  and  grinding,  yet  it  is  in  capital  trim. 
The  cost  of  repairs  has  been  but  a 'mere  trifle. 

"  The  windlass  has  had  10  years'  work.  In  1858  it  did 
55  acres  for  the  late  Prince  Consort,  on  the  Flemish  farm, 
Windsor,  and  I  have  worked  it  on  my  farm  ever  since. 

"  I  have  worked  the  rope  7  years.  The  first  year  it  got 
out  several  times.  At  one  or  other  of  the  splices  it  pulls  in 
two ;  indeed  it  has  not,  during  these  9  days'  work,  gone 
through  a  day  without  a  break  ;  therefore  the  men  have  had 
the  mending  of  the  ropes  to  do  as  well  as  the  ridging  and 
subsoiling.         *         *         *         * 

"  My  average  quantity  of  work  per  day  is  much  greater, 


STEAM    CULTIVATION.  459 

and  my  average  consumption  of  coal  per  acre  is  much  less, 
than  it  has  ever  been  before.  This  is  mainly  due  to  my 
land  having  been  deeply  worked  so  many  times  before. 

''  The  sum  total  of  all  this  evidence  proves  plainly  that  the 
Woolston  system  of  applying  steam-power  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  soil  gives  clean  dress  and  cheap  seed-beds,  and 
that  fancy  tackle  is  not  needed  on  show^  days.  The  boy 
that  you  see  working  the  implement  is  only  14  years  old. 
lie  has  done  all  my  work  this  year,  and  well  too.  The 
Avork  is  before  you  to  speak  for  itself." 

It  is  found,  for  use  in  neighborhoods  where  the  farms 
are  small,  that  it  is  the  best  plan  to  form  joint-stock  com- 
panies to  own  and  operate  the  tackle — hiring  it  out  by  the 
day  or  by  the  acre,  and  giving  the  precedence  to  stock- 
holders. This  plan  would  work  the  best  among  the  smaller 
farmers  of  our  Eastern  States — but  at  the  West,  where  the 
proprietorships  are  larger,  it  will  be  most  advantageous  to 
have  the  apparatus,  with  its  engine  to  do  other  work,  at- 
tached to  the  farm. 

It  is  sometimes  objected  that  much  of  the  land  in  this 
country  is  too  rough  and  too  stony  for  the  steam-plough 
ever  to  gain  a  foothold.  The  same  objection  was  made  twenty 
years  ago  to  the  use  of  the  mowing  machine  in  New  Eng- 
land, and  there  is  every  reason  to  suppose  that  when  the 
advantages  of  the  steam-plough  are  once  fully  realized,  even 
the  hillsides  of  Vermont  will  smile  under  its  influence. 


HOUSE   PAINTING. 

The  following  receipts  and  directions  are  condensed  from 
a  practical  English  work  on  the  art  of  house  painting. 
The}^  are  principally  designed  for  the  inexperienced  and 
those  who,  living  at  a  distance  from  cities,  have  great  diffi- 
culty in  obtaining  first-class  workmen. 

To  make  the  work  satisfactory,  it  is  very  necessary  for  the 
workman  to  have  very  olean  all  the  vessels,  brushes,  and  cans 
he  may  require  in  the  course  of  his  work,  such  as  the  vari- 
ous paints,  pots,  or  vessels  in  which  he  mixes  or  from  which 
he  uses  his  colors.  These  are  sometimes  bought  at  the 
shops,  handsomely  made  of  stout  tin,  and  such  are  easily 
kept  clean,  and  save  their  expense  in  color,  which  is  readily 
brushed  down  their  smooth  sides.  He  will  also  require  a 
marble  slab  and  muller,  to  grind  the  finer  colors  used  in 
painting.  Sometimes  a  small  cast-iron  mill  is  useful  not 
only  to  grind  colors,  but  to  pass  the  tinted  color  through,  so 
that  it  may  be  more  thoroughly  mixed. 

It  is  presumed  the  workman  wiU  know  what  brushes  he 
will  require,  according  to  the  work  he  has  in  hand. 

In  preparing  to  paint  a  good  dwelling,  after  having  ob- 
tained the  necessary  colors  and  brushes,  see  that  you  have  a 
few  pounds  of  good  pumice  stone,  a  quire  or  two  of  assorted 
Band  paper,  to  smooth  the  inequalities  in  the  work ;  some 


HOUSE  PAINTING.  461 

twenty  pounds  of  puttj,  to  stop  up  after  the  first  coat  in 
every  part  of  the  house ;  a  sufficiency  of  fine  slaked  lime, 
and  a  proper  number  of  large  and  small  vessels,  to  mix  the 
colors  in  and  use  it  from  ;  a  few  pounds  of  soaked  glue,  &q. 

If  the  wood- work  be  new,  and  no  w^all  work  required,  you 
will  go  over  it  carefully  with  a  small  brush,  and  some  of  the 
glue  size,  colored  with  red  lead,  covering  what  knots  and 
stains  may  appear  in  the  wood,  after  which  the  priming 
coat  of  almost  all  oil,  and  good  white  lead,  tinted  with 
Indian  red,  should  be  evenly  brushed  over  the  work  ;  and, 
as  soon  as  dry,  the  putty  knife  and  putty  should  follow,  to 
stop  all  the  cracks  and  nail  holes.  Then  should  follow  the 
second  coat,  with  a  little  spirits  of  turpentine  in  the  oil,  and 
the  color  slightly  tinged  with  blue  black.  This  is  generally 
thought  sufficient  for  the  attic  and  third  stories.  But  the 
rest  of  the  house  is  usually  finished  with  old  ground  white 
lead,  thinned  with  spirits  of  turpentine.  The  roof,  if  cov- 
ered with  tin,  should  be  painted  once  in  three  years.  There 
are  many  diflferent  methods  in  use.  Some  paint  with  raw 
oil,  dry  Spanish  brown  and  a  little  red  lead,  to  dry  it, 
for  fear  of  a  rain ;  others,  with  Spanish  brown,  more 
red  lead,  and  half  whale  oil  with  the  linseed  oil ;  others 
use  yellow  ochre  and  black,  mixed  in  the  same  oils ; 
others  use  a  roof  paint,  made  by  boiling  paint  skins  in  whale 
oil,  and  carefully  straining  them  while  warm,  reserving  the 
remaining  skins,  to  stop  the  leaks  around  chimneys  and 
dormer  windows.     This  last  mentioned  paint  is  probably 


462  HOUSE    PAINTING. 

serviceable  from  its  elasticity.  In  the  country,  many  paint 
their  roofs  and  out-buildings  in  the  same  way,  using  some- 
times Venetian  red  from  its  brightness. 

Many  complaints  are  continually  made  that  white  lead, 
and  colors  composed  thereof,  do  not  endure,  and  are  quickly 
beaten  off  by  exposure  to  the  sun  and  rain.  This  difficulty 
occurs  as  much  from  the  manner  of  using  the  paint  as  from 
its  quality.  As  this  occurs  in  outside  work,  it  is  to  be  at- 
tributed, first,  to  the  condition  of  the  work  to  be  painted, 
being  generally  in  such  a  state  as  to  absorb  the  oil  from  the 
first  coat,  thereby  leaving  it  in  a  dusty  state,  and  liable  to 
be  washed  of  by  the  first  rain.  This  can  be  guarded 
against,  only  by  filling  the  old  work,  in  painting  two  thin 
coats  over  it,  one  upon  the  other,  as  soon  as  dry ;  and  fin- 
ishing it  with  one  thicker  coat,  to  protect  it  and  shed  the 
rain.  A  fourth  coat,  if  the  immediate  expense  is  not 
heeded,  will  repay  its  cost  in  additional  service  and  beauty. 

The  white  lead  can  be  procured  of  any  requisite  quality 
at  the  color  stores.  It  is  thought  that  the  best  article  is 
the  most  economical,  as  it  works  out  with  more  ease,  and 
repays  the  difference  of  cost  in  its  appearance.  Linseed 
oil  is  also  better  for  having  due  age,  for  the  same  reasons  as 
the  white  lead,  working  with  softness  and  advantage  after 
parting  with  the  water  which  is  generally  combined  with 
new  oil. 

The  quality  and  fineness  of  the  white  lead  used  adds 
materially  to  the  work,  and  that  which  is  well  ground,  and 


MIXING   PAINTS.  463 

has  such  mellowness  from  age  as  will  cause  it  to  work 
smoothly  under  the  brush,  in  connection  with  good  linseed 
oil,  will  certainly  repay  any  reasonable  additional  cost.  The 
first  coats  should  always  be  mixed  with  clear  linseed  oil ; 
the  fourth  coat  may  be  used  with  boiled  oil  and  one-quarter 
part  spirits  of  turpentine. 

Putty  is  best  purchased  at  a  good  color  store,  where  you 
can  depend  upon  its  being  made  of  good  dry  whitening  and 
linseed  oil.  It  should  be  carefully  and  freely  used  after  the 
work  has  had  one  coat  of  paint,  for  the  fresh  paint  holds  the 
putty  very  firmly. 

Harmony  of  Colors. — Red  looks  well  with  blacks, 
whites,  or  yellows.  Blues  harmonize  with  whites  and  yel- 
lows. Greens,  with  whites,  black  or  yellow.  Gold,  with 
blacks  or  browns.  White  appears  well  with  any  color. 
Purple,  pink  and  white,  &c.,  &c. 


MIXING   PAINTS. 

A  Beautiful  White  Paint. — For  inside  work,  which 
ceases  to  smell,  and  dries  in  a  few  hours.  Add  one  pound 
of  frankincense  to  two  quarts  of  spirits  of  turpentine; 
dissolve  it  over  a  clear  fire,  strain  it,  and  bottle  it  for  use ; 
then  add  one  pint  of  this  mixture  to  four  pints  of  bleached 
linseed  oil,  shake  them  well  together,  grind  white  lead  in 
spirits  of  turpentine,  and  strain  it,  then  add  sufficient  of  the 
lead  to  make  it  proper  for  painting  ;  if  too  thick  in  using. 


464  MIXING   PAINTS. 

thin  with  turpentine,  it  being  suitable  for  the  best  internal 
work  on  account  of  its  superiority  and  expense. 

For  a  Pure  White  Paint. — ^Nut  oil  is  the  best ;  if  lin- 
seed oil  is  used,  add  one-third  of  turpentine. 

To  Mix  Common  White  Paint. — Mix  or  grind  white 
lead  in  linseed  oil  to  the  consistency  of  paste,  add  turpen- 
tine in  the  proportion  of  one  quart  to  a  gallon  of  oil ;  but 
these  proportions  must  be  varied  according  to  circumstances. 
Remember  to  strain  your  color  for  the  better  sorts  of  work. 
If  the  work  is  exposed  to  the  sun,  use  more  turpentine  for 
the  ground  color  to  prevent  its  blistering. 

For  Knotting. — Mix  white  or  read  lead  powder  in  strong 
glue  size  and  apply  it  warm. 

Common  Flesh  Color. — Stain  your  white  lead  with  red 
lead,  and  mix  with  oil  and  turps. 

Fine  Flesh  Color. — Is  composed  of  white  lead,  lake  and 
vermilion. 

A  Beautifhl  Color  for  Carriages,  &c. — ^Mix  carmine 
lake  with  black  japan. 

Cream  Color. — This  is  a  mixture  of  chrome  yellow,  the 
best  English  Venetian  red,  white  lead,  and  red  lead,  in 
oil. 

Pearl  Gray. — White  lead,  with  equal  portions  of  Prus- 
sian blue  and  lampblack,  mix  with  oil  and  turps. 

Fa-wTi  Color. — Grind  some  burnt  and  raw  terra  sienna 
very  fine.    Two  or  three  pounds  of  this  is  sufficient  to  stain 


MIXING   PAINTS.  465 

white  lead  for  a  large  building.     This  color  is  of  a  superior 
shade,  and  very  excellent  for  inside  work. 

Blue. — Grind  Prussian  blue  in  turps ;  other  blue  very 
fine  in  linseed  oil,  and  mix  it  with  white  paint  to  the  tint 
required. 

Buflf: — This  is  a  mixture  of  French  yellow,  chrome  yel- 
low and  white  lead,  tinged  with  a  little  Yenetian  red,  oil 
and  turps. 

Stra-w. — A  mixture  of  chrome  yellow  and  white  lead, 
oil  and  turps. 

Drab. — Eaw  and  burnt  umber  and  white  lead,  with  a  lit- 
tle Yenetian  red,  linseed  oil  and  turps.  Another. — Burnt 
umber  and  white  lead,  with  a  little  Yenetian  red,  oil  and 
turps,  as  before. 

Steel. — Mix  white  lead,  Prussian  blue,  fine  lake  and  ver- 
digris, in  such  proportions  as  to  produce  the  required  color. 

Purple. — White  lead,  Prussian  blue  and  vermilion,  or 
lake,  with  oil  and  turps. 

Violet. — Is  composed  of  vermilion,  mixed  with  blue- 
black,  and  a  little  white. 

French  Gray. — White  lead  and  Prussian  blue,  tinged 
with  vermilion  ;  and  for  the  last  coat  substitute  carmine 
for  the  vermilion.     Mix  with  oil  and  turps. 

Silver. — Use  white  lead,  indigo,  and  a  small  portion  of 
blue-black,  as  the  shade  may  require. 


466  MIXING   PALNTS. 

Gold. — Mix  Naples  yellow  or  patent  yellow  with  a  small 
quantity  of  orange  chrome  and  a  little  Spanish  white. 

Dark  Chestnut. — Mix  red  ochre  and  black.  Use  yellow 
ochre  when  you  require  to  lighten  the  color,  in  oil. 

Salmon. — ^White  lead,  tinged  with  the  best  English  Yen- 
etian  red,  oil  and  turps. 

Peach  Blossom. — White  lead,  tinged  with  orpiment ; 
mixed  with  oil  and  turps. 

Drab. — White  lead  with  a  little  Prussian  blue  and  French 
yellow,  linseed  oil  and  turps.  Another. — White  lead,  with 
a  little  French  yellow  and  lamp-black,  linseed  oil  and  turps. 
Another. — ^White  lead  with  a  little  chrome  green  and  blue- 
black. 

Lead. — This  is  a  mixture  of  lamp-black  and  white  lead, 
with  a  little  litharge. 

Chocolate. — Mix  lamp-black  and  Venetian  red  with  a 
little  red  lead,  or  litharge,  to  harden  the  color  and  give  a 
dr^ang  quality.  The  colors  must  be  ground,  and  mixed 
with  boiled  oil  and  a  little  turps. 

Dark  Red,  for  Common  Purposes. — Mix  English  Yene- 
tian  red  in  boiled  oil  with  a  little  red  lead  and  litharge,  to 
give  a  drying  quality. 

Orange. — Mix  red  lead  and  French  yellow  with  linseed 
oil  and  turps,  or  use  deep  chrome  yellow. 

Bright  Yello-w  for  Floors,  &c. — White  lead  and  linseed 
oil,  mixed  with  some  French  yellow,  and  a  little  chrome 


MIXING   PAINTS.  467 

yellow  to  brighten  it ;  some  red  lead,  burnt  white  vitriol 
and  litharge  added  to  give  it  a  very  drying  quality.  This 
color  mixed  with  equal  parts  of  boiled  oil  and  turpentine, 
and  used  very  thin. 

Dark  Yellow. — Mix  French  yellow  in  boiled  oil,  adding 
to  it  a  little  red  lead  and  litharge,  to  give  the  paint  a  drying 
quality. 

Light  Yellow.— This  is  a  mixture  of  French  yellow, 
chrome  yellow  and  white  lead,  with  oil  and  turps.  Another. 
— French  yellow,  white  lead,  and  red  lead.  Another. — 
Grind  raw  terra  sienna  in  turps  and  linseed  oil ;  mix  with 
white  lead.  If  the  color  is  required  of  a  warmer  cast,  add 
a  little  burnt  terra  sienna  ground  in  turps. 

Olive  Green. — A  suitable,  cheap,  and  handsome  color  for 
outside  work,  such  as  doors,  carts,  wagons,  &c. 

Grind  separately  Prussian  blue  and  French  yellow  in 
boiled  oil,  then  mix  to  the  tint  required  with  a  little  burnt 
white  vitriol  to  act  as  a  drier.  Another. — Black  and  blue 
mixed  with  yellow,  in  such  quantities  as  to  obtain  the  colors  or 
shades  required.  For  distemper,  use  indigo  and  yellow  pink 
mixed  with  whiting  or  white  lead  powder.  Another. — 
This  is  a  mixture  of  Prussian  blue,  French  yellow,  a  small 
portion  of  Turkey  umber,  and  a  little  burnt  vitriol.  Ground 
the  same  way.  Another^  in  oil. — ^Mix  Prussian  blue  and 
chrome  yellow.  Grind  the  same.  Another  shade. — ^A  mix- 
ture of  Prussian  blue  and  French  yellow,  with  a  small 


468  MIXING  PAINTS. 

quantity  of  white  lead  and  Turkey  umber  and  burnt  white 
vitriol.     Grind  the  same. 

Light  Green. — WJiite  mixed  with  verdigris.  A  variety 
of  shades  may  be  obtained  by  using  blue  and  yellow  with 
white  lead. 

Grass  Green. — Yellow  mixed  with  verdigris.  Another. 
— Mix  one  pound  of  verdigris  with  two  pounds  of  white 
lead.     Walnut  oil  is  the  best  for  this  purpose. 

Invisible  Green,  for  outside  work.— Mix  lamp-black 
and  French  yellow,  with  burnt  white  vitriol.  These  colors 
mix  in  boiled  oil.  Burnt  vitriol  is  the  best  drier  for  greens, 
as  it  is  powerful  and  colorless,  and  consequently  will  not 
injure  the  color. 

To  Paint  a  Bronze. — Grind  good  black  with  chrome 
yellow  and  boiled  oil ;  apply  it  with  a  brush,  and  when 
nearly  dry  use  the  bronze  powder  at  certain  parts  and  the 
edges  also ;  the  effect  will  be  a  brassy  hue. 

A  Good  Imitation  of  Gold. — ^Mix  white  lead,  chrome 
yellow,  and  burnt  sienna,  until  the  proper  shade  is  obtained. 

Tar  Paint  for  Fences,  Roofs,  &c. — Common  tar  mixed 
with  whiting.  Venetian  red  or  French  yellow,  according 
to  the  color  required.  This  should  be  warmed  in  a  large 
iron  kettle  in  the  open  air,  and  applied  with  a  large  paint- 
ing-brush. It  is  an  excellent  preservative  of  the  wood,  and 
looks  well  for  rough  work. 

Paint  Driers. — Litharge. — This  is  a  useful   drier,  and 


MIXING   PAINTS.  46& 

may  be  used  in  all  kinds  of  paints,  except  greens  and  very 
delicate  colors.  White  Vitriol  or  Copperas. — This  turns 
into  water,  especially  when  used  in  black  paints ;  and  is 
almost  useless  for  any  color  till  the  water  of  crystallization 
is  evaporated,  and  then  it  becomes  a  powerful  drier,  and 
may  be  used  for  every  delicate  color,  as  it  is  perfectly  trans- 
parent ;  but  when  used  in  its  raw  state  in  white  paint,  has 
the  effect  of  turning  it  yellow.  Sugar  of  Lead, — This  is 
a  very  useful  and  transparent  drier,  not  so  powerful  as 
white  vitriol,  but  it  may  be  used  with  it  to  advantage. 

Milk  Paint  for  In-door  Work. — The  quantity  for  one 
hundred  square  feet : — One  quart  of  skimmed  milk,  three 
ounces  of  lime,  two  ounces  of  linseed  or  poppy  oil,  one 
pound  and  a  half  of  Spanish  white  or  whiting.  Put  the 
lime  into  a  clean  bucket,  add  sufficient  of  the  milk  to  slake 
the  lime,  add  the  oil  a  few  drops  at  a  time,  stirring  the 
mixture  with  a  flat  stick  till  the  whole  of  the  oil  is  incorpo- 
rated in  the  mass ;  then  add  the  remainder  of  the  milk, 
and  afterwards  the  Spanish  white  or  whiting,  finely  pow- 
dered, and  sifted  gently  over  the  mixture  by  degrees. 
Curded  milk  will  do  for  the  purpose,  but  it  must  not  be 
sour.  One  coat  of  this  will  do  for  ceilings  and  staircases 
in  general ;  two  coats  or  more  for  new  wood.  Where  color 
is  required,  you  may  use  powdered  umber,  ochres,  chromes, 
greens,  blues,  pinks,  &c.,  &c.,  ground  in  milk.  For  particu- 
lar work,  strain  the  color  through  a  hair  sieve. 

Lime  White-wash. — ^Lime  whitewash  is  made  from  lime 


470  MIXING   PAINTS. 

well  slaked.  Dissolve  two  pounds  and  a  half  of  alum  in 
boiling  water,  and  add  it  to  every  pailful  of  whitewash. 
Lime  whitewash  should  be  used  very  thin,  and  when  it  is 
sufficiently  bound  on  the  wall  by  means  of  alum,  two  thin 
coats  will  cover  the  work  better ;  this  may  be  used  for  the 
first  coat,  thinned  with  water.  Most  whitewashers  apply 
their  wash  too  thick,  and  do  not  mix  a  proportionate  quan- 
tity of  alum  to  bind  it,  consequently  the  operation  of  the 
brush  rubs  off  the  first  coat  in  various  parts  and  leaves  an 
uneven  surface,  and  the  original  smooth  surface  of  the  wall 
is  entirely  destroyed. 

Italian  Marble. — This  looks  bold,  and  is  well  adapted 
for  columns,  &c.,  and  is  easy  to  imitate.  The  ground  a 
light  buff.  For  the  graining  colors,  prepare  a  rich,  warm 
buff,  made  in  the  following  manner  :  Mix  stiff  in  boiled  oil 
white  lead  and  good  stone  ochre,  and  tinge  with  vermilion, 
then  grind  some  burnt  terra  sienna  very  fine  in  burnt  oil, 
and  put  it  into  another  pot ;  mix  some  pure  white  stiff 
in  oil,  and  keep  this  separate.  Thin  these  colors  with  tur- 
pentine, have  ready  a  brush  for  the  buff,  and  another  for 
the  terra  sienna.  Proceed  to  work  as  follows :  Take  the 
brush  intended  for  the  buff  moderately  full  of  color,  and 
dab  it  on  freely  and  carefully  in  different  patches,  some  of 
them  larger  than  others,  and  varying  them  as  much  as  pos- 
sible. When  these  are  laid  on,  take  the  other  brush  and 
fill  in  with  the  terra  sienna  the  spaces  between  ;  as  soon  as 
this  is  done,  take  a  dry  duster  or  softener  and  blend  the 


MIXING  PAINTS.  471 

edges  together,  making  it  appear  as  soft  as  possible.  Pro- 
ceed in  this  manner  till  the  whole  is  finished,  then  take  a 
hair  pencil  and  draw  a  few  thin  white  veins  over  the  work, 
varying  them  as  much  as  is  necessary  ;  take  another  pencil 
for  the  terra  sienna,  and  run  a  few  thin  lines  intermixing 
with  the  whole ;  varnish  when  dry. 

To  Imitate  Granite. — For  the  ground  color,  stain  your 
white  lead  to  a  light  lead  color,  with  lamp-black  and  a  little 
rose-pink.  Throw  on  black  spots  with  a  graniting  machine, 
a  pale  red,  and  fill  up  with  white  a  little  before  the  ground 
is  dry. 

A  Cheap  Oak  Varnish. — Two  quarts  of  boiled  oil,  one 
and  a  half  pound  of  litharge,  three  quarters  of  a  pound  of 
gum  shellac,  one  ounce  of  gum.  All  boiled  together,  and 
stirred  up  till  dissolved,  then  take  off  the  fire  and  add  two 
quarts  of  turps.  When  settled,  strain  into  a  bottle  and  cork 
for  use. 

Common  Oil  Varnish. — Take  one  gallon  of  quick  drying 
oil,  two  pounds  of  resin,  and  one  quart  of  turpentine ;  put 
the  resin  with  the  drying  oil  into  a  varnish  kettle,  and  let  it 
dissolve  in  a  gentle  heat ;  take  it  from  the  fire  and  gradually 
pour  in  the  spirits  of  turpentine.  If  too  thick  add  more  of 
the  turpentine. 

Transparent  Varnish  for  Pictures.— Take  the  white  of 
four  eggs  and  two  ounces  of  loaf  sugar ;  beat  them  up  in 
lime  water  to  the  proper  consistency  for  varnishing. 


472  MTXE^a  PAINTS. 

For  Varnishing  on  Wood,  Unpainted. — Quarter  of  a 
pint  of  wood  naphtha,  quarter  of  a  pint  of  spirits  of  wine,  four 
ounces  of  benzoin,  four  ounces  of  orange  shellac,  added  all 
together.  K  not  thick  enough  with  those  ingredients  for 
jour  purpose,  add  more  of  the  gums  benzoin  and  shellac. 

Waterproof  Varnish,  for  Linen  or  Calico. — One  pint 
of  turpentine,  one  and  a  half  pint  of  linseed  oil,  seven  ounces 
of  litharge,  one  ounce  of  sugar  of  lead.  Strain  it,  apply 
it  with  a  brush,  and  dry  it  in  the  sun  or  in  a  warm  place. 

Instructions. — Oil  of  turpentine  deadens  the  color  of 
paints ;  varnishes,  copal,  &c.,  brighten  the  color. 


SOLDERS   AND   OEMBINTS.  4:73 

SOLDEKS. 

For  lead  solder. — Melt  1  part  block  tin,,  and  when  fused, 
add  2  parts  of  lead.     Use  resin  with  it. 

For  tm  solder. — Melt  4  parts  of  pewter,  1  part  of  tin, 
and  1  part  bismuth  together.     Use  resin  with  it. 

CEMENTS. 

Glue. — Melt  1  lb.  glue  in  2  quarts  warm  water.  For  a 
glue  that  will  resist  the  action  of  water,  boil  1  lb.  of  glue 
in  2  quarts  of  skimmed  milk.  Pulverized  chalk  added  to 
glue  strengthens  it. 

Soft  cement. — For  boilers,  steam-pipes,  &c. :  4  parts  red 
or  white  lead,  ground  in  oil,  with  2  or  3  parts  iron  filings. 

Hard  cement. — Mix  iron  borings  or  filings  with  salt 
water,  then  add  a  small  quantity  of  sal  ammoniac  with 
water. 

Hydraulic  cement — for  cisterns,  sewers,  cellars,  pipes, 
&c.,  is  purchased  by  the  barrel,  which  contains  300  lbs. 

Dry  cement — which  will  resist  the  weather  equal  to 
marble,  is  made  of  2  parts  sifted  ashes,  3  parts  clay,  and  1 
part  sand,  mixed  with  oil,  and  appKed  while  soft. 

Brown  mortar y,f or  mas(mry,  hrich-worh,  (&c. 
Mix  1  part  lime,  2  parts  sand,  a  small  quantity  of  hair 
with  water. 


CONTENTS 


A.LPHABETIC  ALLY    ARRANGED. 


A. 

_  PAGE 

AocouNTS,  Keeping  of 227 

Accounts  by  single  entry,  with  examples 22V 

"              double     "        "            "         229 

Form  of  bill  of  sundries 231 

"         receipt  in  full 237 

"         check 238 

"         due-bill 238 

"         promissory  note 238 

"                "              "    with  surety 238 

"         draft  or  bill  of  exchange 239 

Explanation  of  all  the  above 240 

Alcohol,  Proportion  of,  in  Liquors 190 

Angular  Measure,  Illustrated 23 

Animals,  Life  and  Increase  of 197 

Table,  showing  the  period  of  reproduction  and  gestation  of  domes- 
tic animals  and  fowls 198 

Table,  showing  when  forty  weeks  (the  period  of  gestation  in  a 

cow)  will  expire,  from  any  day  throughout  the  year 199 

G-rowth  and  life  of  animals 199 


476  CONTENTS. 


VAOS 


Animals,  Age  of,  Illustrated 201 

To  find  the  age  of  a  horse 201 

"    "      «    "    "     cattle , 206 

"    "      "    "    "     sheep 208 

"    "      "    "    "     goats 208 

Animals,  Food  of,  Illustrated 212 

Table,  showing  the  comparative  difference  between  good  hay  and 

other  food  for  stock — being  the  results  of  experiments 212 

Table,  showing  the  comparative  difference  between  good  hay  and 
other  food  for  stock — being  the  mean  between  experiment  and 

theory 213 

Table,  showing  the  quantity  of  food  different  animals  require  per 

day  to  each  100  lbs  of  their  live  weight. 213 

Table,  showing  the  daily  food  required  by  the  ox 214 

Table,  showing  the  effects  produced  by  an  equal  quantity  of  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  substances  as  food  for  sheep 215 

Animals,  Computed  Weight  of 209 

Annuities 219 

Table,  showing  the  amount  of  $1  for  any  nunaber  of  years  from  1 

to  24,  at  5  and  6  per  cent,  compound  interest 219 

Table,  showing  the  present  worth  of  $1  annuity  at  5  and  6  per 
cent,  compound  interest  for  any  number  of  years  from  1  to  34,  218 

Apothecaries'  Weight,  table 158 

"  fluid  measure,  table 156 

Arithmetical  Characters,  Explanation  of 14 

Artificial  Manures 357 

Avoirdupois  Weight,  table 152 


CX)NTENTS.  477 


PAOS 


Balances,  false,  Illustrated 84 

To  detect  false  balances 84 

To  find  tlie  true  weight 84 

Board  Fence  (see  fences) 125 

Board  Measure 62 

Books,  Sizes  of  (see  printing) 260 

Bonds— TJ.  S.  Bonds 242 

Boxes,  Capacity  of 81 

Brick-work  (see  masonry) 276 

Butter,  Properties  and  Composition  of 387 

Butter  and  Cheese-Making 391 

The  butter  dairy 391 

The   milk  room 391 

Cleanliness 392 

Setting  the  milk 392 

Cream-churning 393 

Packing  for  market 394 

Test   of  good  butter. 396 

The  cheese  dairy 397 

Quality  of  cheese 397 

To  construct  an  ice-house  for  the  dairy 399 

Analysis  of  butter 390 

€. 

Capacity  of  Boxes 81 

"           Wagon-Beds,  Illustrated 82 

Cask-gauging,  Illustrated 78 


4:78  CONTENTS. 

PAOK 

To  find  the  contents  of  a  cask  by  three  dimensions 79 

u      «        ii  u  li  a        u     £qj^  «  tj2 

Cattle,  Soiling : 401 

Cattle,  to  find  the  Age  of 206 

Cattle,  Computed  Weight  of,  Illustrated 209 

Table,  showing  the  compute  weight  of  cattle  from  their  girth,  &c.  211 

Cements 473 

Glue 473 

Soft  cement 473 

Hard  cement 473 

HydrauUc  cement 473 

Dry  cement 473 

Brown  mortar  for  masonry,  brickwork,  &c 473 

Circles 296 

To  find  the  circumference  of  a  circle 296 

"        "  diameter  "     296 

«        "  area  "     296 

To  find  the  side  of  an  equal  square  containing  the  same  area  as  a 

given  circle 297 

To  find  the  solidity  of  a  sphere 297 

Table,  showing  the  areas  of  circles  and  the  sides  of  their  equal 

squares,  fi-om  1  to  100 298 

To  find,  by  means  of  the  table,  the  square  or  circle  that  will  con- 
tain the  area  of  a  board  or  surface  of  given  length  and  width.  302 

CmouLAR  Measure,  Illustrated 23 

Cisterns,  Illustrated 86 

To  find  the  number  of  gallons  in  square  or  oblong  cisterns 86 


CONTENTS.  479 

PAGB 

To  find  the  number  of  gallons  in  triangular  cisterns 86 

"        "        "  "  circular  "     87 

Table,  showing  the  contents  of  circular  cisterns  from  1  foot  to  25 

feet  in  diameter  for  each  10  inches  in  depth 87 

To  find  the  number  of  gallons  in  tub-shaped  cisterns 88 

To  ascertain  the  size  of  cisterns  adapted  to  roofs 89 

Table,  showing  the  contents  of  circular  cisterns  in  barrels  for 

each  foot  in  depth 90 

To  construct  filtering  cisterns  to  furnish  pure  water  for  domestic 

use 91 

Charcoal,  to  prepare 115 

Cheese  Dairy  (see  butter  and  cheese) 397 

Cloth  Measure,  table. , 169 

Coke 118 

Commercial  Abbreviations 18 

Compound  Interest,  table  of 218 

Contents 475 

Corn  on  the  Cob  in  Cribs,  to  measure,  Illustrated 57 

When  the  crib  is  equilateral 57 

When  the  crib  is  flared  at  the  sides 58 

Corn,  relation  of  Pork  to 194 

Table,  showing  price  of  pork  per  lb.  at  diiOferent  prices  per  bushel 

for  corn 194 

To  find  the  price  of  pork,  the  price  of  corn  being  given 195 

To  find  the  price  of  corn,  the  price  of  pork  being  given 195 

Crops,  Rotation  of 378 

Rotation  of  field  crops 385 


480  OONTBMTB. 

PAes 
Eotation  of  garden  crops 386 

Chemical  theory  of  rotation ^ 381 

Crops,  Nutritive  "Value  of 190 

Cubic  Measure,  table 171 

To  find  the  cubic  contents  of  any  solid  body 171 

Cubes  and  Cube  Eoots,  table  of,  from  1  to  1000 303 

Cultivation,  Steam,  Illustrated 450 

Decimals — Fractions 257 

To  reduce  fractions  to  decimals 257 

To  add  decimals 257 

To  subtract  decimals 258 

To  multiply  decimals 258 

To  divide  decimals 259 

Table  of  useful  decimals 259 

Decrease  and  Expectation  of  Human  Life 216 

Table,  showing  the  decrement  and  expectation  of  human  life. . .  216 
Table  of  St.  Maur 217 

Definitions  of  Mathematical  Forms 292 

Parallel  Lines 292 

An  Angle 292 

A  Eight  Angle 292 

An  Acute  Angle 292 

An  Obtuse  Angle 292 

A  Surface 292 

A  Triangle 292 

The  Altitude 292 


CONTENTS.  481 

PAOB 

A  Eight  Angle  Triangle 293 

A  Parallelogram 293 

A  Rectangle 293 

A  Square 293 

A  Trapezoid 293 

The  Altitude 293 

A  Circle 293 

The  Circumference 293 

The  Diameter 293 

The  Radius 293 

A  Solid 294 

A  Prism 294 

Triangular  Prism 294 

'    Hexagonal  Prism 294 

Cylinder 294 

Cube 294 

A  Pyramid 294 

The  Altitude. 294 

A  Cone 294 

A  Frustum 295 

An  Ellipse 295 

ASphere 295 

A  Spheroid 295 

Depth  of  sowing  Wheat 193 

Diet,  Solid  Matter  and  Water  in  Articles  of 198 

Table,  showing  the  proportion  of  solid  matter  and  water  in  100 
parts  each  of  various  articles  of  diet 198 


482  CONTENTS. 

,  pAas 

Draining  Tile 362 

How  to  make  a  drain 364 

Different  kinds  of  tile  used 364 

Boynton's  improvement  in  making  tile 365 

Rules  to  be  observed  in  making  tile  drains 367 

Size  and  quantity  of  tile  required  to  the  acre 368 

Tools  used  in  laying  drain  tile 370 

How  to  make  drain  tile,  Illustrated 373 

Why  should  land  be  drained 373 

The  effects  of  drainage 374 

Dry  Measure,  table 162 

E. 

Earth,  Pressure  of,  against  Walls 255 

English  Money,  table 149 

"       Gold  and  silver  coin 149 

"      Copper  coin 150 

Canadian  currency 150 

Exhaustion  of  Soils  (see  soils,  exhaustion  of) 320 

Expectation  and  Decrease  of  Human  Life 216 

Table,  showing  the  decrement  and  expectation  of  human  life. . .  216 

St.  Maur's  Table 217 

F. 

False  Balances,  Illustrated 84 

To  detect  false  balances 84 

To  find  the  true  weight 84 

Fences  and  Fencing,  Illustrated 125 


CONTENTS.  483 

PAGB 

Eail  fence 126 

Table,  showing  the  number  of  rails,  stakes,  and  riders  required 

for  each  10  rods  of  fence 127 

Post  and  rail  fence 128 

Table,  showing  the  number  of  posts  and  rails  required  for  each 

10  rods  of  post  and  rail  fence 128 

Post  and  board  fence 128 

To  find  the  number  of  feet  of  boards  required  for  each  rod  of  post 

and  board  fence 129 

To  find  the  number  of  posts  required  for  a  given  length  of  post 

and   board  fence 129 

Penoes,  Hedge  (see  hedge  plants) 130 

Fences,  Wire 134 

Pood  of  Animals  (see  animals,  food  of),  Illustrated 212 

Pood  for  Stock,   Steaming 415 

Practions  (see  decimals) 257 

Table  of  useful  decimals 259 

Freights,  By-laws  of  N.  Y.  Chamber  of  Commerce 442 

PUEL 113 

Table,  showing  the  comparative  values  of  fire  woods 113 

Table,  showing  the  weights  per  cubic  foot  of  difierent  kinds  of 

coal 115 

Properties  of  charcoal 116 

To  prepare  charcoal 115 

Table,  showing  the  number  of  parts  of  charcoal  afforded  by  100 

parts  of  different  kinds  of  wood 118 

Coke 118 


484  CONTENTS. 


PAGS 


Table,  showing  the  weight,  evaporative  powers  for  weight,  bulk, 

and  character  of  fuel 119 

Combustible  matter  of  fuel 120 

Table,  showing  the  heating  power  of  different  combustibles 121 

Table,  showing  the  effects  of  heat  upon  certain  bodies 121 

Table,  showing  the  relative  value  of  different  fuels  by  weight. . .  121 
Table,  showing  the  number  of  gallons  of  water  which  may  be 

lifted  to  various  heights  by  the  consumption  of  112  lbs.  of  coal  122 
Table,  showing  the  price  of  parts  of  a  cord  of  wood  at  given 

rates  per  cord 123 

G. 

GrARDEN   SeEDS,    QUANTITT  OF,  TO  PLANT,  &C 192 

GrARDENING    FOR   MaRKET 428 

Size,  arrangement,  and  equipment  of  the  garden 430 

Construction  and  care  of  the  hot-bed 432 

Profits  of  the  same 434 

Management  of  field  crops 435 

Vegetables  best  adapted  for  market 437 

Harvesting  the  crops 440 

Prices  of  early  vegetables 441 

Profits  of  the  business 446 

GrAUGiNG,  Cask,  Illustrated 78 

GrLUE,    TO  MELT  AND   APPLY 473 

GrOATS,    TO  FIND   THB   AGE    OF 208 

GrOVERNMENT  LaND  MeASURE 50 

GrRAiN,  MEAsr"JKi«NT  OF,  IN  GRANARIES,  Illustrated 60 


CONTENTS.  485 


PAOB 


GrRAiN,  Weight  op,  as  established  by  the  Legislatures  of  the  diflfer- 

ent  States 189 

GrRAIN,  PER   CENT.    OF    OiL  IN 191 

G-RAIN,    QUANTITY  OP,    TO    SOW   PER   ACRE,  &C 192 

G-RAViTY,  Specipio,  Illustrated 182 

To  find  the  specific  gravity  of  a  body 183 

"     "       "        "            "            "      "    lighter  than  water 183 

To  reduce  the  gravity  of  a  body  to  its  weight  in  lbs.  per  cubic  foot  184 

Table,  showing  the  specific  gravity  of  various  bodies 185 

To  find  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  substance,  the  specific  grav- 
ity being  given . . ; 185 

To  find  the  number  of  cubic  feet  in  any  irregular  body 186 

Table,  showing  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  diflferent  substances  187 

0. 

Hat,  Measurement  op,  Illustrated 51 

To  find  the  number  of  tons  of  hay  raked  into  windrows 52 

"     "      "        "              "           "    in  a  mow 52 

"     "      "        "              "          "in  old  stacks 53 

"     "      "        "               "          "   in  long,  square  stacks 53 

"     "      "        "  "  "    when  taken  out  of  old  mows 

or  stacks 54 

Table,  showing  the  price  per  cwt.  of  hay  at  given  prices  per  ton  54 
An  easy  mode  of  ascertaining  the  value  of  a  given  number  of  lbs. 

of  hay  at  a  given  price  per  ton  of  2000  lbs 55 

Heat,  Effects  of,  on  different  Bodies 121 

Heating  inclosed  Air 122 


486  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Heating  by  Steam-pipe 123 

Hedge  Plants 130 

Directions  for  setting  and  trimming 131 

To  preserve  plants  during  the  winter 131 

Setting  evergreens 131 

Osage  orange 132 

Honey  locust 132 

Buck  thorn 132 

Privit 132 

Hawthorn 133 

Norway  spruce 133 

Arbor  vitae 133 

Hemlock 133 

Hop,  Analysis  of,  Illustrated 323 

Horse  Power.  Illustrated 136 

Horse  Power,  origin  and  definition  of. 139 

Table,  showing  the  labor  one  horse  is  able  to  perform  at  different 

rates  of  speed  on  canals,  railroads,  and  turnpikes 140 

Table,  showing  how  much  one  team  and  plough  will  perform  in  a 

day  in  acres  and  tenths 141 

Draught  of  a  horse 136 

Power  of  the  horse  when  aided  by  horse-mill 136 

Travel  per  day  of  the  horse 136 

Burden  of  the  horse 136 

Endurance  of  the  horse 139 

To  compute  the  power  of  a  waterfall 139 

<*        «*        "        "        of  a  steam-engine 140 


CONTENTS.  487 


PAGB 


To  find  the  age  of  the  horse 201 

Food  of  the  horse 213 

House  Painting 460 

Human  Strength 135 

Hydraulics,  Illustrated 93 

The  fundamental  laws  of  hydraulics,  &c 93 

To  find  the  velocity  of  a  stream  issuing  from  a  head  of  water. . .  95 

To  find  the  head,  the  velocity  being  given : 96 

To  find  the  quantity  of  water  that  will  issue  from  an  opening, 

the  dimensions  of  the  opening  and  the  head  being  given 96 

To  find  the  velocity  of  currents  in  ditches,  sluices,  brooks  or  rivers  97 
To  find  the  volume  of  water  discharged  by  drains,  sluices,  brooks, 

&c.,  of  given  dimensions,  in  a  given  time 98 

To  find  the  velocity  of  water  running  through  pipes 98 

To  find  the  quantity  of  water  discharged  through  pipes 99 

To  find  the  pressure  of  a  fluid  on  the  bottom  of  a  vessel,  cistern, 

or  reservoir 100 

To  find  the  pressure  on  the  side  of  a  vessel 100 

Hydraulic  Ram,  the.  Illustrated 103 

To  ascertain  the  quantity  of  water  and  the  height  to  which  it 

may  be  elevated  by  a  given  fall  and  volume  of  water 105 

Working  results  of  water  rams  now  in  use 106 

Hydraulic  Press,  the,  Illustrated. 110 


Ice  House,  to  construct  an 399 

Ice,  Strength  of 271 


488  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Illustrations,  List  op 17 

Inclined  Plane,  Illustrated 282 

Interest,  Simple 218 

Interest,  Compound 218 

Table  of  simple  interest  at  7  per  cent,  for  each  day  to  a  month, 

from  $1  to  $100 222 

Table  of  simple  interest  at  6  per  cent,  for  each  day  to  a  month, 

from  $1  to  $100. 224 

Table,  showing  the  interest  of  $1  to  $5,000  from  1  day  to  2000 

days,  at  6  or  7  per  cent 220 

Iron,  weight  of  square  rolled,  Illustrated 273 

"  "        "  ROUND         "       275 

K. 

Keeping  Accounts  (see  accounts,  keeping  of) 227 

By  single  entry,  with  examples 227 

By  double  entry,  with  examples 229 

Land,  Measurement  of,  Illustrated 43 

When  the  field  is  a  square,  a  parallelogram,  a  rhombus,  or  a  rhom- 
boid    44 

When  the  field  is  triangular 44 

When  the  field  is  a  trapezium  or  trapezoid 45 

When  the  field  is  an  irregular  polygon 45 

When  the  field  is  long  and  the  sides  crooked  and  irregular 46 

When  the  field  is  long  and  the  sides  and  ends  crooked.and  irregular  46 

When  the  field  is  a  circle 47 


CONTENTS.  489 


PAGS 


Plots  containing  an  acre 47 

Table,  showing  the  square  feet  and  the  feet  square  of  the  fractions 

of  an  acre 48 

Table,  showing  the  number  of  hills  or  plants  on  an  acre,  for  any 
distance  apart,  from  10  inches  to  6  feet — the  lateral  and  longi- 
tudinal distances  being  unequal 48 

Table,  showing  the  number  of  plants,  hills,  or  trees  contained  in 
an  acre  at  equal  distances  apart,  from  3  inches  up  to  66  feet. .     49 

Land  Measure,  Government 50 

Laths,  size  of,  number  in  a  bundle,  &c 279 

Latitude 24 

Lead  Pipe,  weight  of 112 

Table,  showing  the  weight  of  lead  pipe  per  yard  from  i  to  4-i- 

inches  diameter 112 

Table,  showing  the  weight  of  very  light  lead  pipe 112 

Lever,  the.  Illustrated 279 

Life  and  Increase  of  Animals,  Illustrated 197 

Table,  showing  the  period  of  reproduction  and  gestation  of  ani- 
mals and  fowls 198 

Table,  showing  when  forty  weeks  (the  period  of  gestation  in  a 

cow)  will  expire  from  any  day  throughout  the  year 199 

G-rowth  and  life  of  animals 199 

Life,  Decrease  and  Expectation  of 216 

Table,  showing  the  decrement  and  expectation  of  life 216 

Table  of  St.  Maur 217 

Lightning  Rods,  Illustrated   251 

To  construct  a  lightning-rod 251 


490  CONTENTS. 


PA6B 


Conductors  of  electricity 253 

Non-conductors 253 

Dr.   Franklin's   theory 253 

Liquors,  proportion  of  Alcohol  in 190 

List  of  Illustrations 17 

Logs  reduced  to  Inch-board  Measure 70 

Table,   showing  the  number  of  feet  (board  measure)  of  inch 
boards  contained  in  round  saw-logs  of  various  dimensions. . .     71 

Longitude  (see  seasons,  &c.),  Illustrated 19 

Long  Measure,  table 167 

M. 

Manures 327 

The  use  of  manures 328 

Kules  in  deciding  what  manures  should  be  used 331 

Classification  of  manures 332 

Mineral  manures 332 

Vegetable  manures 332 

Animal  manures 332 

Analysis  of  fish-guano 332 

Analysis  of  Peruvian  guano 333 

Analysis  of  BoUvian  guano 333 

How  to  select  a  good  article  of  guano 334 

How  to  apply  guano 334 

Analysis  of  bone  (crushed)  manure 335 

Table,  showing  the  comparative  value  of  animal  manures,  with 

fiarm-yard  manure  as  the  standard 335 


CONTENTS.  491 

PAOK 

vegetables  as  manures 336 

Distinction  between  animal  and  vegetable  manures 336 

Table,  showing  the  relative  values  of  decomposed  vegetables  as 

manures  from  the  inorganic  matter  they  contain 336 

Table,  showing  the  relative  value  of  decomposed  vegetables  as 

manures  from  the  nitrogen  they  contain 336 

Analysis  of  a  manure-heap  in  the  condition  usually  applied  to 

the  field 337 

Analysis  of  other  specimens  of  fresh  farm-yard  manure 338 

Analysis  of  green  sand  marl  (of  New  Jersey) 340 

"  Digestion   and  its  products  " '341 

Yalue  of  liquid  manures 344 

Poudrette  and  urate 345 

Analysis  of  night-soil 346 

The  dry  earth  system 347 

Invention  of  Rev.  Mr.  Moule 347 

To  construct  earth  closets  and  their  use 348 

Table,  showing  the  eflfect  produced  on  the  quantity  of  the  crop 

by  equal  quantities  of  diifferent  manures  applied  to  the  same 

soil 351 

Table,  showing  the  comparative  increase  of  corn  by  different 

fertilizers 350 

Moisture  absorbed  by  different  manures 351 

Table,  showing  the  number  of  loads  of  manure  and  the  number 

of  heaps  to  each  load  required  to  each  acre,  the  heaps  at  given 

distances  apart 352 

Weight  of  manure  per  cubic  foot 353 


492  CONTENTS. 

PAOS 

Load  of  manure,  how  mucli  it  is 353 

To  find  the  number  of  loads  of  manure  required  to  the  acre  for  a 

given  number  of  lbs.  per  square  foot 354 

Manures,  Artificial 354 

Analysis  of  Mape's  improved  superphosphate  of  lime 358 

Analysis   of   Coe's  superphosphate 358 

Analysis  of  Deburg's  bone  meal 358 

Analysis  of  bone  dust 359 

Analysis  of  fish  guano 359 

Prices   of  standard  fertilizers > 360 

Average  composition  per  cent,  and  per  ton  of  various  agricultural 

products 361 

Marking  Goods 247 

Market,  Gardening  for 446 

Masonry,  Illustrated 276 

To  find  the  number  of  perches  in  stone  walls 276 

Brick-work 277 

Dimensions  of  bricks 277 

To  find  the  number  of  bricks  in  a  wall 277 

Laths 278 

Materials,  Strength  of 264 

Tensile  strength 264 

Table,  showing  the  weight  in  lbs.  necessary  to  tear  asunder  one 

square  inch  of  various  materials 264 

To  find  the  tensile  strength 265 

Table,  showing  the  strength  of  iron- wire  rope  and  hempen  cable  266 

To  find  the  strength  of  cables 266 


CONTENTS.  493 


PAGE 


To  find  the  strength  of  ropes  and  hawsers 267 

Table,  showing  what  weight  hemp  rope  will  bear  with  safety .  . .  267 

Strength  of  metal  and  wooden  rods 267 

Hempen  cords 268 

Lateral  or  transverse  strength 268 

Table,  showing  the  transverse  strength  of  timber 268 

Tables,  showing  the  transverse  strength  of  iron 269 

To  find  the  transverse  strength  when  the  bar  or  beam  is  fixed  at 

one  end,  and  the  load  applied  at  the  other 269 

When  the  bar  or  beam  is  fixed  at  both  ends  and  the  weight  apphed 

in  the  middle 270 

When  the  bar  or  beam  is  supported  at  both  ends,  and  the  weight 

applied  in  the  middle 270 

Table,  showing  the  resistance  of  materials  to  crushing 271 

Strength  of  ice 271 

Mathematical  Forms,  Definitions  of,  Illustrated 292 

Measurement  of  Land  (see  land,  measurement  of).  Illustrated 43 

"                Hay  (see  hay,  measurement  of),  Illustrated 51 

"                Grain  in  Q-ranaries,  Illustrated 60 

"                Timber  (see  timber  measurement).  Illustrated ...  61 
Measures  and  Weights,  tables  of  U.  S.  (see  weights  and  mea- 
sures)   145 

!     Measures  of  Capacity  compared : 163 

Tables  of  English  weights  and  measures 163 

Mechanical  Powers,  Illustrated 279 

The  lever,  Illustrated 279 

The  inclined  plane,  Illustrated 282 


494 


CONTENTS. 


PAOH 

The  wheel  and  the  axle 284 

The  wedge,  Illustrated 286 

The  screw,  Illustrated 288 

The  pulley,  Illustrated , 290 

Metals,  fusing  heat  of 121 

Metric  System  of  Weights  and  Measures 173 

"  "         origin  and  history   of. 173 

"  "        countries  that  have   adopted   the 173 

"  "        act  of  Congress  authorizing 174 

"  "        formation  of  tables 176 

"  "        table  of  hnear  measure 177 

"  "        table  of  square  measure 178 

"  "        table  of  cubic  or  sohd  measure 179 

"  "        table  of  dry  and  liquid  measure 179 

"  "        table  of  weights 180 

"  "        table  of  angles 181 

"  "        tables  of  equivalents 181 

Milk,  Properties  and  Composition  of 387 

Analysis  of  milk 387 

Table,  showing  the  effects  of  various  degrees  of  heat  in  making 

new  milk  cream 387 

Analysis  of  the  milk  of  different  animals 390 

Miscellaneous  Weights 153 

Mixing  Paints 460 

Money  (see  United  States  Money) 145 

Mortar,  brown,  for  Masonry,  Brick-work,  &c 463 


CONTENTS.  495 


N. 

PAOK 

Nutritive  value  of  certain  Crops 190 

Table,  showing  the  nutritive  value  of  certain  crops 190 


o. 

Oil,  per  cent,  in  dififerent  seeds,  grain,  &c 191 

Table,  showing  the  per  cent,  of  oil  in  different  seeds,  grain,  &c.. .  191 

Osage  Orange — hedge  plants 130 

P. 

Painting 460 

House  painting 460 

Mixing  paints 463 

A  beautiful  white  paint 463 

A  pure  white  paint 464 

Common  white  paint 464 

For  knotting 464 

Common  flesh  color 464 

Fine  flesh  color 464 

A  beautiful  color  for  carriages 464 

Cream  color •  •  464 

Pearl  gray 464 

Fawn  color 464 

Blue 465 

Buff 465 

Straw -^65 

Drab ^^^ 

Steel 465 


496  CONTENTS. 


PAGE 


Purple 465 

Violet 465 

French  gray 465 

Silver 465 

Gold • 465 

Dark  chestnut 466 

Salmon 466 

Peach  blossom 466 

Drab 466 

Lead 466 

Chocolate 466 

Dark  red 466 

Orange 466 

Bright  yell9w 466 

Dark  yellow 467 

Light  yellow. 467 

OUve  green 467 

Light  green 467 

Grass  green 468 

Invisible  green 468 

Bronze 468 

Imitation  of  gold 468 

Tar  paint 468 

Paint  driers 468 

Milk  paint. 469 

Lime  whitewash 469 

Italian  marble 470 


CONTENTS. 


497 


PAOB 


Imitation  granite 471 

Oak  varnish 471 

Oil  varnisli 471 

Varnish  for  pictures 471 

Varnish  for  unpainted  wood 472 

Waterproof  varnish  for  cloth,  &c 472 

Pendulums  (see  time,  seasons,  &c.),  Illustrated 31 

Plank  Measure 62 

Table,  showing  the  contents  (board  measure)  of  planks  of  various 

dimensions 67 

Plants  (see  hedge  plants) 130 

Pork,  relation  of  Corn  to 194 

Table,  showing  the  price  of  pork  per  lb.,  at  diflferent  prices  per 

bushel  for  corn 194 

To  find  the  price  of  pork  per  lb.,  the  price  of  corn  being  given . .  195 

To  find  the  price  of  corn,  the  price  of  pork  being  given 195 

Post  and  Rail  Fence  (see  fences),  Illustrated .' 128 

Post  and  Board   "      (see  fences) 128 

Powers,  the  Mechanical,  Illustrat,ed 279 

Practical  Reader,  to  the 11 

Preface 7 

Pressure  of  Earth  against  Walls 255 

Printing,  facts  about 260 

The  different  types  used  in  book  printing 260 

The  number  of  ems  made  by  different  type 261 

Press-work 262 

Sizes  of  books 262 


498  CONTENTS. 


PAGE 


Table,  showing  the  number  of  leaves  and  pages  from  the  folding 

of  a  sheet 263 

Properties  and  Composition  of  Milk,  Butter,  &c 387 

Proportion  of  Alcohol  in  Liquors 190 

"  Weight  to  Bulk  of  various  Substances 193 

Pulley,  the.  Illustrated , 290 


R. 

Rail  Fence,  Illustrated 126 

Rain,  average  fall  of  (see  temperature  and  average  fall  of  rain)..  67 

Relative  value  of  Gold  and  Currency 243 

Table,  showing  the  greenback  value  of  $1  at  the  different  quota- 
tions  of  gold 243 

Highest  quotation  of  gold  in  New  York  during  the  civil  war. .  244 

"                "                "    "   Richmond        "        "      "      "  ..  244 

English  bonds  and  consols,  explanation  of. 244 

"  Selling  Short,"  explanation  of 245 

"  Seller's  Option,"        •'           " 245 

"  Buyer's  Option,"         "           "  245 

Stock  Quotations,         "           " 246 

"  Bull,"  commercial  definition  of 245 

"  Bear,"           "              "           « 245 

"  Stag,"          "              «          « 245 

Rods,  Lightning 251 

To  construct  a  lightning-rod  ....*. 251 

Roots,  Square  and  Cube,  table  of 303 


CONTENTS.  499 

PAOB 

Rotation  of  Crops 378 

"  field  crops 385 

"  garden  crops , 386 


s. 

Scantling  Measure 72 

Table,  showing  the  contents   (board  measure)  of  scantling  of 

various  dimensions 72 

Screw,  the,  Illustrated 288 

Seasons,  Time,  &c.  (see  time),  Illustrated 19 

Seeds,  weight  of,  as  established  by  the  Legislatures  of  the  different 

States 189 

Seeds,  oil  per  cent,  in 191 

"       quantity  of,  to  sow  or  plant  per  acre,  &c 192 

Sheep,  to  find  the  age  of 208 

Soiling  Cattle 401 

Experiments  by  the  author 402 

Arrangement  of  crops   for  soiling 405 

Arguments  in  favor  of  soihng : 409 

Soils,  Exhaustion  of 320 

Table,  showing  the  organic  substances  removed  from  the  soil  in 

1000  lbs.  each  of  the  various  crops 321 

Table,  showing  the  inorganic  matter  removed  from  the  soil  in  1000 

lbs.  each  of  the  various  crops 321 

Table,  showing  the  Mnds  of  inorganic  matter  removed  from  the 
soil  in  1000  lbs,  each  of  the  various  crops 322 


500  CONTENTS. 

PAOB 

Analysis  of  the  hop,  showing  the  elements  it  removes  from  the 

soil 323 

Table,  showing  amount  of  inorganic  matter  removed  from  the  soil 

by   ten  bushels  of  grain 324 

Soils 311 

Classification  of  soils 312 

To  analyze  soils 313 

Q-eneral  results  of  analytical  examinations  of  soils 316 

Table,  showing  the  composition  in  1000  parts  of  diflferent  soils. . .  317 

Analytic  table  of  three  very  fertile  soils 317 

Analytic  table  of  arable  lands  of  great  fertility 318 

Depth  of  soil — its  importance 318 

Table,  showing  the  weight  per  cubic  foot  of  the  different  kinds  of 

earth 319 

Solders 473 

Lead  solder 473 

Tin  solder 473 

Solid  Matter  and  Water  in  articles  of  Diet 188 

Table,  showing  the  proportion  of  solid  matter  and  water  in  100 

parts  each  of  the  various  articles  of  diet 188 

Specific  GtRAVity  (see  gravity),  Illustrated 182 

Square  Measure,   table 165 

Squares  and  Square  Roots,  table  of,  from  1  to  1000 303 

Steaming  Food   for   Stock 415 

Report  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture ■ 416 

How  to  make  a  steaming  apparatus 421 

Prindle's  Agricultural  Steamer  and  Cauldron  (Illustrated) 423 


CONTENTS.  501 

PAGB 

Advantages  of  cooked  food 425 

Steam  Cultivation,  Illustrated 450 

Advantages  claimed 452 

Report  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society 455 

Stock,   Steaming  Food  for 415 

Stock  Quotations 246 

Strength,  Human 135 

Strength  of  Materials  (see  materials,  strength  of) 264 

Success  in  Business 246 

Short  credits 246 

Small  profits 246 

Economy  in  expense 247 

Marking  goods 247 

Surveyors'  Measure,  table 168 

T. 

Tempkrature  and  fall  of  Rain,  average  of 37 

Table,  showing  the  average  temperature  of  the  four  seasons  at 
points  on  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  coasts,  and  the  interior  of 

this  continent , 37 

Periodical  rains,  region  of. 38 

Frequent  rains,        " 39 

Scanty  rains,  "  39 

Table,  showing  the  latitude  and  longitude,  the  elevation  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  the  mean  annual  temperature,  and  the 

average  fall  of  rain  in  various  places  in  the  United  States 49 

Tile  Draining  (see  draining) 362 


602  CONTENTS. 


PAGE 


Timber,  Measurement  of,  Illustrated 61 

Board  measure 62 

To  ascertain  the  contents  (board  measure)  of  boards,  scantling, 

and  plank 62 

Table,  showing  the  contents  of  inch  boards  from  6  inches  to  30 

broad,  and  from  4  to  24  feet  long 63 

Square  timber 65 

To  measure  square  timber 65 

Plank  measure 62 

Table,  showing  the  contents  (board  measure)  of  planks  of  various 

dimensions 67 

Eound  and  square  timber 64 

To  measure  round  timber.  Illustrated 65 

Logs  reduced  to  inch-board  measure 70 

Table,   showing  the  number  of  feet  (board  measure)  of  inch 

boards  contained  in  round  saw-logs  of  various  dimensions. ...  71 

Time,  Seasons,  &c.,  Illustrated 19 

To  reduce  longitude  to  time 19 

Time,  apparent  and  mean 21 

To  ascertain  the  length  of  the  day  and  night 21 

Pendulums,  Illustrated 31 

To  find  the  length  of  a  pendulum  for  a  given  number  of  vibra- 
tions per  minute 31 

To  find  the  vibrations  per  minute,  the  length  of  the  pendulum 

being  given • 32 

Measure  of  time,  table.  Illustrated 26 

Division  of  the  calendar  year 26 


CONTENTS.  603 


PAOB 


Old  Style  (0.  S.)  and  new  style  (N.  S.) 27 

Decade,  what  period  it  is.. 27 

Century,     "        "        "       27 

Lunar  Cycle,  what  it  is 27 

Golden  Number,  what  it  is 27 

Solar  Cycle,  what  it  is 28 

To  find  the  lunar  cycle  or  golden  number 28 

Table,  showing  the  number  of  days  from  any  day  in  the  month 

to  the  same  day  in  any  other 28 

Table,  finding  the  number  of  days  between  two  dates 29 

Table,  showing  the  planets,  &c.,  in  the  solar  system 27 

Distance  of  the  planets,  and  size  compared  with  the  earth 32 

u. 

United  States  Bonds,  explanation  of. 242 

Five-Twenties 242 

Ten-Forties 242 

Seven-Thirties 242 

Sixper  cents,  of  '81 243 

United  States  Monet,  table 145 

"  "       Gold  coin 146 

"  "       Silver  coin 147 

"  "       Copper  coin 148 

Alloy  of  Gold  and  Silver 147 

V. 

Velocity,  table  of 188 


^MUMiliidb 


604  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Wages 224 

Table  of  wages  at  $3  to  $25  per  month  of  26  working  days 224 

Wagon-beds,  Capacity  of,  Illustrated 82 

'I'o  find  the  contents  of  wagon-beds 82 

Walls,   pressure  of  Earth  against 255 

Water  Ram,  Illustrated 103 

Weather 33 

Table,  for  telling  the  weather  through  all  the  lunations  of  the  year  33 

Wedge,  the.  Illustrated 286 

Weights  and  Measures,  tables  of  U.  S.,  Illustrated 145 

Long  measure 167 

Hair's  breadth 168 

Gunter's  chain 168 

Ropes  and  cables 168 

G-eographical  and  nautical  measure 169 

Miscellaneous  long  measures ! 168 

Measures  of  circles 23 

Measures  of  surfaces 165 

Land  measure 43 

Paper  measure 263 

Liquid  measure 160 

Standard  gallon  measure 161 

Dry  measure 162 

Standard  bushel  measure 162 

Imperial  or  British  bushel 163 

Miscellaneous  dry  measures 163 


CONTENTS.  505 


PASS 


Measure  of  weights,  avoirdupois 153 

Troy  weight 156 

Troy  weight  reduced  to  avoirdupois 157 

Diamond  measure 157 

Measure  of  time 25 

Measure  of  value 145 

Standard  of  gold  and  silver 148 

Miscellaneous  weights  and  measures , 153 

Heaping  measure 163 

Barrel  measure 153 

Ton  weight  and  ton  measure 172 

A  sack  of  wool 155 

A  pack  of  wool 155 

A  truss  of  hay 56 

A  load  of  hay 56 

A  bale  of  hay 56 

A  firkin  of  butter 155 

A  bale  of  cotton 155 

Weight,  Compute,  of  Cattle,  Illustrated 209 

Weight  op  Lead  Pipe 112 

Weights  of  Grain,  Seeds,  &o 189 

Table,  showing  the  weight  of  grain,  seeds,  &c.,  as  established  by 

the  Legislatures  of  the  different  States 189 

Weight  of  Square  Kolled  Iron 273 

Table,  showing  the  weight  of  square  rolled  iron  from  ^  inch  to 

12  inches,  and  1  foot  long 273 

Weight  of  Round  Rolled  Iron 275 


506  CONTENTS. 

PAQB 

Table,  showing  the  weight  of  round  rolled  iron  from  ^  inch  to 

12  inches  diameter  and  1  foot  long 276 

Weight,  proportion  of,  to  bulk  of  various  substances 193 

Table,  showing  the  weight  per  cubic  foot  of  various  substances, 

and  the  number  of  cubic  feet  required  to  make  a  ton  of  each..  193 

Wheat,  depth  of  Sowing 193 

Wheel  and  Axle 284 

Whitewash 469 

Wind 35 

Table,  showing  the  force  and  velocity  of  wind 36 

To  find  the  force  of  wind  acting  against  a  surface 35 

Wire  Fences 134 

Wood  Measure,  Illustrated 62 

To  ascertain  the  number  of  cords  in  a  given  pile  of  wood 62 


,,         OF  THE 

UjMIVERSfTY 

OF 


Prom  Bishop  SCOTT,  of  the  M.  E.  Church. 

I  am  glad  you  are  about  to  bring  out  an  unabridged  edition  of  Conybeare  and 
Howson's  great  book,  ''  The  Life,  Times  and  Travels  of  St.  Paul."  I  have  been  acquainted 
with  it  for  several  years,  and  regard  it  as  the  most  precious  treasure  of  uninspired 
literature  that  the  lover  of  Biblical  knowledge  can  possess.  Let  it  fly  on  the  wings  of 
favoring  breezes,  and  become  the  familiar  household  friend  in  every  family  in  the  land. 
I  wish  you  great  success  in  your  noble  Christian  enterprise. 
Odessa,  Del.,  December  25th,  1868. 

Prom  T.  W.  WOOLSEY,  D.D.  LL.D.,  President  of  Yale  College. 

Conybeare  and  Howson's  work  has  such  a  permanent  acknowledged  value  that 
nothing  need  be  said  in  commendation  of  it.  The  more  it  is  diffused  the  better.  I 
should  regard  the  original  work  as  far  better  than  the  most  skillfully  executed 
abridgment. 

Yale  College,  December  23rd,  1868. 

Prom  Rev.  HENRY  WARD  BEECHER,  Pastor  of  Plymouth  Congregational 

Church,  Brooklyn. 

I  have  used  Conybeare  and  Howson's  ''  Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul"  ever  since  the 
first  publication,  and  with  ever  increasing  interest  and  benefit.  Good  for  all  Clergymen. 
It  would  be  a  mistake  to  suppose  the  volume  less  well  suited  to  a  layman's  library. 
I  can  conscientiously  recommend  the  work  for  every  intelligent  Christian  household 
and  library. 

Brooklyn,  December  19th,  1868. 

Prom  Rev,  PHILIP  SCHAPP,  D.D.,  Church  Historian  and  Editor 
'■'■hangers  Commentary .^^ 

As  a  complete  biography  of  the  Great  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles  for  the  general  reader, 
the  well-known  work  of  Conybeare  and  Howson  has  no  superior  in  English  literature. 
It  is  full  of  reliable  and  well  digested  information  in  an  elegant  and  pleasing  style,  and 
breathes  a  devout  and  truly  Christian  spirit. 
New  York,  December  15th,  1868. 

Prom  Rev.  W.  ADAMS,  D.D.,  Pastor  of  Madison  Square  Presbyterian  Church. 

I  am  happy  to  hear  that  you  propose  to  publish  an  edition  of  the  "  Life  and 
Epistles  of  St.  Paul,"  by  Conybeare  and  IIowson,  unabridged,  with  all  its  valuable 
maps  and  illustrations,  yet  in  a  single  volume,  and  at  a  reduced  price.  The  work 
itself  1  have  always  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  instructive  of  modern 
times.  It  fortifies  the  evidences  of  Christianity  by  showing  its  relations  to  geography, 
history  and  monumental  testimonies.  It  gives  wonderful  freshness  and  life  to  the 
perufial  of  the  Book  of  the  Acts  and  the  Holy  Epistles.  It  would  he  injustice  to  the 
authors,  and  to  their  subject^  to  attempt  any  abridgment  of  such  a  work.  An  edition 
wiihin  the  reach  of  general  readers,  with  no  diminution  of  contents,  must  prove,  in  my 
judgment,  of  yreat  service  to  letters  and  religion. 
New  York,  December  17th,  18t8. 

Prom  Rev.   H.  D.  NORTE  ROP,  Pastor  of  the  West  2Sd  Street  Presbyterian  Church. 

Dr  Boardman's  endorsement  of  this  work  cannot  be  considered  too  emphatic.     All 
who  examine  it  must  admit  that  it  is  a  valuable  contribution  to  our  theological  litera- 
ture.    It  is  clear,  concise,  comprehensive — ,just  such  a  book  as  ought  to  be  read  and 
studied,  and  one  '  f  the  books  that  it  pays  to  buy. 
New  York,  December  19ih,  1868. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress  in  the  year  1868  by  E.  B.  Tbfat  &  Co.  in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the 
District  Court  of  the  United  btatts  lor  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 


A  Book  of  Great  Value  to  Old  and  Young. 


JUST  ISSUED. 


OF 

FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 

Historical,  Documentary,  Statistical  and  Political. 
From  the  Foundation  of  the  Government  to    the   Present   Time. 

1  VOL.,  408  PAGES,    I2M0.       COMPILED  FROM  OFFICIAL  SOURCES. 


Much  labor  and  care  has  been  spent  in  the  preparation  of  this  work,  and  it 
is  now  offered  to  the  public  in  the  belief  that  it  is,  as  its  title  purports,  a  ready 
Hand-book  of  facts  and  figures,  bearing  upon  all  the  important  matters  per- 
taining to  our  National  History.     Thus  : 

If  you  wish  to  know  the  spirit  which  actuated  our  forefathers  during  the 
seven  years  war  of  the  Revolution,  by  turning  to  its  pages  you  will  find  it,  in  the 
language  of  the  immortal  Declaration  of  Independence,  culminating  in  the  con- 
federation of  the  Colonies,  the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution,  with  various 
amendments  to  the  present  time. 

If  you  want  to  know  the  origin  and  history  of  the  emblem  of  our  nation- 
ality, The  Stars  and  Stripes  you  will  find  full  particulars  in  an  article  written  ex- 
pressly for  this  book,  by  the  distinguished  historian,  J.  T.  Headley. 

In  its  pag'cs  are  found  the  following  important  documents.  The  Nullifica- 
tion Proclamation  to  South  Carolina,  which  made  President  Jackson  so  famous. 
The  Monroe  Doctrine,  and  the  Neutrality  Laws  of  the  United  States. 

It  contains  all  the  important  slavery  documents  which  have  agitated  the 
country  for  the  past  half  century ;  viz,  the  various  Fugitive  Slave  Bills,  Statis- 
tics of  Slavery  during  our  colonial  history,  the  Missouri  Compromise  Act,  the 
Dred  Scott  Decision,  Slave  Population  in  1860,  the  Constitutional  Amendments, 
Abolishing  Slavery,  &c.,  and  following  these  may  be  found  Washington's  First 
Inaugural  and  Farewell  Address. 

If  you  wish  to  know  the  important  acts  of  the  late  President  Lincoln,  you 
will  here  find  the  first  call  for  troops  to  put  down  the  Rebellion,  with  a  table  of 
the  various  calls  ;  the  Blockading  Proclamation,  the  Emancipation  Proclamation, 
his  first  and  last  Inaugural,  '*  with  malice  toward  none,  with  charity  for  all,^^  &c. 

If  you  wish  to  know  the  popular  and  electoral  vote  of  each  candidate  for 
the  Presidency  of  the  different  political  parties,  you  have  in  concise  form  the 
figures  from  Washington,  down  to  1868. 

If  you  wish  to  know  the  number  of  killed  and  wounded  in  putting  down  the 
Rebellion,  you  here  have  the  official  figures  of  the  Provost  Marshal  General,  also 
the  number  of  troops  furnished  by  each  State  during  the  war. 

It  contains  a  chronology  of  important  events  of  the  war  with  statistics  of 
over  eleven  hundred  battles  and  skirmishes  of  the  war,  with  the  loss  on  each  side  ac 
far  as  known.  It  contains  a  complete  table  from  official  sources  of  the  prizes  cap- 
tured and  vessels  destroyed  by  our  navy,  in  violation  of  the  Blockade,  also  a  full 
list  of  Union  vessels  captured  or  destroyed  by  Rebel  Privateers. 

In  its  pages  may  be  found  the  Civil  Rights  Bill,  the  Freedmen  s  Bureau  Bill, 
the  Bankrupt  Act,  the  Tenure  of  Office  Bill,  the  various  Reconstruction  measures 
of  Congress,  with  numerous  State  papers  and  statistical  matter,  that  should  be 
familiar  to  all. 


MEN  AND  WOMEN  WANTED  EVERYWHERE  IN  THE  SALE  OF  THIS  WORK. 
Price,  $  To  Agents,  9  Ver  Doz.     $  Per  Hundred. 

SENT    POST   PAID    UPON   BECKIPT   OK    K.KTAIL   PRICK. 

E.  B.  TEEAT  &  CO.,  Publishers,  654  Broadway,  N.  T. 


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BLRKELEY 


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imKt  jUN22t987 


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GENERAL  LIBRARY -U.C.  BERKELEY 


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